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Galileo Galilei

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The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, improving compass design.

Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed (at least outwardly) to the geocentric view that the Earth is at the centre of the universe. After 1610, when he began supporting heliocentrism publicly, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. Although he was cleared of any offence at that time, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to Scripture" in February 1616,[8] and Galileo was warned to abandon his support for it—which he promised to do. When he later defended his views in his most famous work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in 1632, he was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy," forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.

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<h3>Contributions</h3>

It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of Jupiter. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610</div>

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The phases of Venus, observed by Galileo in 1610</div>

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Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides.[68] Galileo also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets,[69] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits.

Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni.</div>

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A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory.</div>

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<h2>Physics</h2>

Galileo e Viviani, 1892, Tito Lessi</div>

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Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[84] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d &prop; t 2 ).[85] However, in neither case were these discoveries entirely original. The time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century,[86] and Domingo de Soto, in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[87] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force—often friction—acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by Ibn al-Haytham centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).

Dome of the cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo"</div>

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<div class="rellink noprint relarticle mainarticle">Main article: Galileo affair</div>

Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition</div>

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With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts:

<ul>

<li>Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy," namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[92]</li> <li>He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest.</li> <li>His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[93]</li>

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Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce</div>

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<h2>His writings</h2>

Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence.</div>

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Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:

<ul>

<li>the Galilean moons;</li> <li>the roughness of the Moon's surface;</li> <li>the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way; and</li> <li>differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light.</li>

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Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots[115] suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[116] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[117] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[118]

In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer – Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[119] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.

<ul>

<li>The Little Balance (1586)</li> <li>On Motion (1590) [120]</li> <li>Mechanics (c1600)</li> <li>The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius)</li> <li>Letters on Sunspots (1613)</li> <li>Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636)</li> <li>Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)</li> <li>Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete)</li> <li>The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore)</li> <li>Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo)</li> <li>Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)</li>

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Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[121] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non-SI unit of acceleration.

International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin</div>

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<li id="cite_note-McTutor-0">^ a b c d e f g <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson.2C_E._F." class="web">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.. "Galileo Galilei". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews, Scotland. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html. Retrieved 2007-07-24.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.atitle=The+MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+archive&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft.pub=%5B%5BUniversity+of+St+Andrews%5D%5D%2C+%5B%5BScotland%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FGalileo.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-birthdate-1">^ Drake (1978, p.1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar.</li> <li id="cite_note-2">^ <img alt="" width="15" height="16" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png~~" width="15" height="16~~" /> "Galileo Galilei" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007</li> <li id="cite_note-3">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFSinger1941">Singer, Charles (1941), A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century, Clarendon Press, http://www.google.com.au/books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Science+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Singer%2C+Charles&rft.date=1941&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.au%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmPIgAAAAMAAJ%26pgis%3D1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei">  (page 217)</li> <li id="cite_note-Einstein-4">^ a b <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFWeidhorn2005" class="book">Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. pp. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Person+of+the+Millennium%3A+The+Unique+Impact+of+Galileo+on+World+History&rft.aulast=Weidhorn&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=Weidhorn%2C+Manfred&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B155&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.isbn=0-595-36877-8&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-finocchiaro2007-5">^ Finocchiaro (2007).</li> <li id="cite_note-6">^ "Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, by Stephen Hawking, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</li> <li id="cite_note-contrary_to_scripture-7">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.127–131), McMullin (2005a).</li> <li id="cite_note-8">^ Reston (2000, pp. 3–14).</li> <li id="cite_note-9">^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 45–66).</li> <li id="cite_note-10">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFRutkin" class="web">Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look". Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford University.. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/colloquia0405.html. Retrieved 2007-04-15.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Galileo%2C+Astrology%2C+and+the+Scientific+Revolution%3A+Another+Look&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Rutkin&rft.aufirst=H.+Darrel&rft.au=Rutkin%2C+H.+Darrel&rft.pub=Program+in+History+%26+Philosophy+of+Science+%26+Technology%2C+Stanford+University.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2FHPST%2Fcolloquia0405.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.17, 213)</li> <li id="cite_note-daughters_unmarriageable-12">^ Sobel (2000, p.5) Chapter 1. Retrieved on 26 August 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother, he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her thirteenth birthday, he placed her at the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri."</li> <li id="cite_note-13">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFPedersen" class="book">Pedersen, O. (24 May–27, 1984). "Galileo's Religion". Proceedings of the Cracow Conference, The Galileo affair: A meeting of faith and science. Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co.. pp. 75-102.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Galileo%27s+Religion&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+O.&rft.date=24+May%E2%80%9327%2C+1984&rft.series=Proceedings+of+the+Cracow+Conference%2C+The+Galileo+affair%3A+A+meeting+of+faith+and+science&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B75-102&rft.place=Cracow&rft.pub=Dordrecht%2C+D.+Reidel+Publishing+Co.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14">^ Gebler (1879, pp. 22–35).</li> <li id="cite_note-15">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFAnonymous2007" class="web">Anonymous (2007). "History". Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. http://www.lincei.it/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=21. Retrieved 2008-06-10.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=History&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Anonymous&rft.au=Anonymous&rft.date=2007&rft.pub=Accademia+Nazionale+dei+Lincei&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lincei.it%2Fmodules.php%3Fname%3DContent%26pa%3Dshowpage%26pid%3D21&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16">^ There are contradictory documents describing the nature of this admonition and the circumstances of its delivery. Finocchiaro, The Galileo Affair, pp.147–149, 153</li> <li id="cite_note-17">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFCarney2000" class="book">Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500-1620: a. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30574-9.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+and+Reformation%2C+1500-1620%3A+a&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Jo+Eldridge&rft.au=Carney%2C+Jo+Eldridge&rft.date=2000&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.isbn=0-313-30574-9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18">^ Allan-Olney (1870)</li> <li id="cite_note-19">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.204–05)</li> <li id="cite_note-20">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFCohen1984" class="book">Cohen, H. F. (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at. Springer. pp. 78–84. ISBN 90-277-1637-4.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantifying+Music%3A+The+Science+of+Music+at&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+F.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+H.+F.&rft.date=1984&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B78%E2%80%9384&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=90-277-1637-4&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFField2005" class="book">Field, Judith Veronica (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320. ISBN 0-300-10342-5.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Piero+Della+Francesca%3A+A+Mathematician%27s+Art&rft.aulast=Field&rft.aufirst=Judith+Veronica&rft.au=Field%2C+Judith+Veronica&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B317%E2%80%93320&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-300-10342-5&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22">^ In Drake (1957, pp.237−238)</li> <li id="cite_note-23">^ Wallace, (1984).</li> <li id="cite_note-24">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFFeyerabend1993" class="book">Feyerabend, Paul (1993). Against Method (3rd ed.). London: Verso. p. 129. ISBN 0-86091-646-4.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+Method&rft.aulast=Feyerabend&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Feyerabend%2C+Paul&rft.date=1993&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B129&rft.edition=3rd&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Verso&rft.isbn=0-86091-646-4&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.250–52), Favaro (1898, 8:274–75) (Italian)</li> <li id="cite_note-26">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.252), Favaro (1898, 8:275) (Italian)</li> <li id="cite_note-Hawking_galileo-27">^ Hawking (1988, p.179).</li> <li id="cite_note-father_of_science_Einstein-28">^ Einstein (1954, p.271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."</li> <li id="cite_note-29">^ Drake (1990, pp.133–34).</li> <li id="cite_note-invisible-30">^ i.e., invisible to the naked eye.</li> <li id="cite_note-jupiter.27s_moons-31">^ Drake (1978, p.146).</li> <li id="cite_note-moonconclusion-32">^ In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro,1892, 3:81(Latin)) Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January. Drake (1978, p.152), however, after studying unpublished manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15 January.</li> <li id="cite_note-medicean_stars-33">^ Sharratt (1994, p.17).</li> <li id="cite_note-34">^ Linton (2004, pp.98,205), Drake (1978, p.157).</li> <li id="cite_note-scepticism-35">^ Drake (1978, p.158–68), Sharratt (1994, p.18–19).</li> <li id="cite_note-36">^ God's Philosophers ju James Hannam Orion 2009 p313</li> <li id="cite_note-periods-37">^ Drake (1978, p.168), Sharratt (1994, p.93).</li> <li id="cite_note-38">^ Thoren (1989), p.8; Hoskin (1999) p.117.</li> <li id="cite_note-39">^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth</li> <li id="cite_note-40">^ Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-11</li> <li id="cite_note-41">^ In Kepler's Thomist 'inertial' variant of Aristotelian dynamics as opposed to Galileo's impetus dynamics variant all bodies universally have an inherent resistance to all motion and tendency to rest, which he dubbed 'inertia'. This notion of inertia was originally introduced by Averroes in the 12th century just for the celestial spheres in order to explain why they do not rotate with infinite speed on Aristotelian dynamics, as they should if they had no resistance to their movers. And in his Astronomia Nova celestial mechanics the inertia of the planets is overcome in their solar orbital motion by their being pushed around by the sunspecks of the rotating sun acting like the spokes of a rotating cartwheel. And more generally it predicted all but only planets with orbiting satellites, such as Jupiter for example, also rotate to push them around, whereas the Moon, for example, does not rotate, thus always presenting the same face to the Earth, because it has no satellites to push around. These seem to have been the first successful novel predictions of Thomist 'inertial' Aristotelian dynamics as well as of post-spherist celestial physics. In his 1630 Epitome (See p514 on p896 of the Encyclopædia Britannica 1952 Great Books of the Western World edition) Kepler keenly stressed he had proved the Sun's axial rotation from planetary motions in his Commentaries on Mars Ch 34 long before it was telescopically established by sunspot motion.</li> <li id="cite_note-42">^ Drake (1978, p.209). Sizzi reported the observations he and his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10 April 1613 (Favaro,1901, 11:491 (Italian)). Morandi subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo.</li> <li id="cite_note-sunspot_argument-43">^ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt, 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191–196) However, in Drake's judgment of this complex issue in Chapter 9 of his 1970 this is not so, for it does not refute non-geostatic geo-rotating geocentric models. For at most the variable annual inclinations of sunspots’ monthly paths to the ecliptic only proved there must be some terrestrial motion, but not necessarily its annual heliocentric orbital motion as opposed to a geocentric daily rotation, and so it did not prove heliocentrism by refuting geocentrism. Thus it could be explained in the semi-Tychonic geocentric model with a daily rotating Earth such as that of Tycho's follower Longomontanus. Especially see p190 and p196 of Drake's article. Thus on this analysis it only refuted the Ptolemaic geostatic geocentric model whose required daily geocentric orbit of the sun would have predicted the annual variation in this inclination should be observed daily, which it is not.</li> <li id="cite_note-scientific_manifesto-44">^ Drake (1960, pp.vii,xxiii–xxiv), Sharratt (1994, pp.139–140).</li> <li id="cite_note-disputatio-45">^ Grassi (1960a).</li> <li id="cite_note-grassi_great_circle-46">^ Drake (1978, p.268), Grassi (1960a, p.16).</li> <li id="cite_note-discourse_on_comets-47">^ Galilei & Guiducci (1960).</li> <li id="cite_note-authorship_of_discourse-48">^ Drake (1960, p.xvi).</li> <li id="cite_note-criticism_of_previous_theories-49">^ Drake (1957, p.222), Drake (1960, p.xvii).</li> <li id="cite_note-Scheiner_insult-50">^ Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xii), Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p.24).</li> <li id="cite_note-uncomplimentary_remark-51">^ Sharratt (1994, p.135).</li> <li id="cite_note-jesuits_offended-52">^ Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xvii).</li> <li id="cite_note-astronomical_balance-53">^ Grassi (1960b).</li> <li id="cite_note-54">^ Drake (1978, p.494), Favaro(1896, 6:111). The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a latinized version of his name and home town.</li> <li id="cite_note-the_assayer-55">^ Galilei (1960).</li> <li id="cite_note-masterpiece_of_polemics-56">^ Sharratt (1994, p.137), Drake (1957, p.227).</li> <li id="cite_note-withering_scorn-57">^ Sharratt (1994, p.138–142).</li> <li id="cite_note-assayer_success-58">^ Drake (1960, p.xix).</li> <li id="cite_note-jesuit_alienation-59">^ Drake (1960, p.vii).</li> <li id="cite_note-jesuits_responsible-60">^ Sharratt (1994, p.175).</li> <li id="cite_note-evidence_of_jesuits-61">^ Sharratt (1994, pp.175–78), Blackwell (2006, p.30).</li> <li id="cite_note-62">^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 67–9.</li> <li id="cite_note-63">^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 52</li> <li id="cite_note-64">^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.119–133</li> <li id="cite_note-65">^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.127–131 and Drake (1953), pp. 432–6</li> <li id="cite_note-66">^ Einstein (1952) p. xvii</li> <li id="cite_note-67">^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 128</li> <li id="cite_note-68">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFKusukawa" class="web">Kusukawa, Sachiko. "Starry Messenger. The Telescope, Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2007-03-10]". http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/galtele.html.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Starry+Messenger.+The+Telescope%5D%2C+Department+of+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+of+the+University+of+Cambridge.+Retrieved+on+%5B%5B2007-03-10%5D%5D&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Kusukawa&rft.aufirst=Sachiko&rft.au=Kusukawa%2C+Sachiko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hps.cam.ac.uk%2Fstarry%2Fgaltele.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69">^ Sobel (2000, p.43), Drake (1978, p.196). In the Starry Messenger, written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum."</li> <li id="cite_note-70">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="web">"omni-optical.com "A Very Short History of the Telescope"". http://www.omni-optical.com/telescope/ut104.htm.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=omni-optical.com+%22%27%27A+Very+Short+History+of+the+Telescope%27%27%22&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.omni-optical.com%2Ftelescope%2Fut104.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-telescope_microscope-71">^ Drake (1978, p.163–164), Favaro(1892, 3:163–164)(Latin)</li> <li id="cite_note-microscope_perfection-72">^ Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p.286).</li> <li id="cite_note-Zollern_microscope-73">^ Drake (1978, p.289), Favaro(1903, 13:177) (Italian).</li> <li id="cite_note-Cesi_microscope-74">^ Drake (1978, p.286), Favaro(1903, 13:208)(Italian). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain debatable. A general view on this can be found in the article Hans Lippershey (last updated 2003-08-01), © 1995–2007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-08-28</li> <li id="cite_note-75">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="web">"brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo"" (PDF). http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=brunelleschi.imss.fi.it+%22Il+microscopio+di+Galileo%22&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrunelleschi.imss.fi.it%2Fesplora%2Fmicroscopio%2Fdswmedia%2Frisorse%2Ftesti_completi.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76">^ Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2007-08-28. See also Timeline of microscope technology.</li> <li id="cite_note-microscope_use-77">^ Drake (1978, p.286).</li> <li id="cite_note-78">^ Drake (1978, pp.19,20). At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law of free fall. He had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p.20).</li> <li id="cite_note-79">^ Drake (1978, p.9); Sharratt (1994, p.31).</li> <li id="cite_note-80">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFGroleau" class="web">Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002". http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Galileo%27s+Battle+for+the+Heavens.+July+2002&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Groleau&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft.au=Groleau%2C+Rick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fgalileo%2Fexperiments.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei">  <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFBall" class="web">Ball, Phil. "Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005". http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Science+history%3A+setting+the+record+straight.+30+June+2005&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft.au=Ball%2C+Phil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2Fseta%2F2005%2F06%2F30%2Fstories%2F2005063000351500.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei">  An exception is Drake (1978, pp.19–21, 414–416), who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it.</li> <li id="cite_note-81">^ Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1935), page 49.</li> <li id="cite_note-82">^ Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated here: E. J. Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955) vol. 1, pages 509 and 511. Available on-line at: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/cgi-bin/digitresor/display.cgi?bookname=Mechanics%20I&page=509</li> <li id="cite_note-83">^ Sharratt (1994, p.203), Galilei (1954, pp.251–54).</li> <li id="cite_note-84">^ Sharratt (1994, p.198), Galilei (1954, p.174).</li> <li id="cite_note-85">^ Clagett (1968, p.561).</li> <li id="cite_note-86">^ Sharratt (1994, p.198), Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity.</li> <li id="cite_note-87">^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50.</li> <li id="cite_note-88">^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)," Isis, 31 (1940): 327–379, see pp. 332–333</li> <li id="cite_note-Bellarmine_quote-89">^ Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini, dated 12 April 1615. Translated from Favaro(1902, 12:171–172) (Italian).</li> <li id="cite_note-90">^ See Langford (1966, pp.133–134), and Seeger (1966, p.30), for example. Drake (1978, p.355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p.491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p.483)</li> <li id="cite_note-91">^ Fantoli (2005, p.139), Finocchiaro (1989, p.288–293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line. "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p.140; Heilbron, 2005, pp.282-284).</li> <li id="cite_note-92">^ Drake (1978, p.367), Sharratt (1994, p.184), Favaro(1905, 16:209, 230)(Italian). See Galileo affair for further details.</li> <li id="cite_note-93">^ Drake (1978, p.356). The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake, 1978, p.357).</li> <li id="cite_note-funeral-94">^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378).</li> <li id="cite_note-funeral_protests-95">^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378); Sharratt (1994, p.207); Favaro(1906,18:378–80) (Italian).</li> <li id="cite_note-burial_spot-96">^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.380).</li> <li id="cite_note-reburial_spot-97">^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.200); Sobel (2000, p.380–384).</li> <li id="cite_note-incomplete_works-98">^ Heilbron (2005, p.299).</li> <li id="cite_note-complete_works_1-99">^ Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p.347).</li> <li id="cite_note-complete_works_2-100">^ Heilbron (2005, p.303–04); Coyne (2005, p.347). The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p.279).</li> <li id="cite_note-ban_not_lifted-101">^ Heilbron (2005, p.307); Coyne (2005, p.347) The practical effect of the ban in its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition (1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the lunar theory.</li> <li id="cite_note-ban_lifted-102">^ McMullin (2005, p.6); Coyne (2005, p.346). In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that year.</li> <li id="cite_note-103">^ Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 1939-1986, Vatican City, p.34</li> <li id="cite_note-104">^ Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p.411</li> <li id="cite_note-105">^ An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p.81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p.178).</li> <li id="cite_note-self-doubt-106">^ a b Ratzinger (1994, p.98).</li> <li id="cite_note-scupper-107">^ Ratzinger (1994, p.98)</li> <li id="cite_note-108">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="news">"Vatican admits Galileo was right". New Scientist. 1992-11-07. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13618460.600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-right-.html. Retrieved 2007-08-09.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Vatican+admits+Galileo+was+right&rft.atitle=&rft.date=1992-11-07&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg13618460.600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-right-.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> .</li> <li id="cite_note-109">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="news">"Papal visit scuppered by scholars". BBC News. 2008-01-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7188860.stm. Retrieved 2008-01-16.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Papal+visit+scuppered+by+scholars&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2008-01-15&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Feurope%2F7188860.stm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="news">"Vatican recants with a statue of Galileo". TimesOnline News. 2008-03-04. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3478943.ece. Retrieved 2009-03-02.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Vatican+recants+with+a+statue+of+Galileo&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2008-03-04&rft.pub=TimesOnline+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fcomment%2Ffaith%2Farticle3478943.ece&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" class="news">"Pope praises Galileo's astronomy". BBC News. 2008-12-21. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7794668.stm. Retrieved 2008-12-22.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Pope+praises+Galileo%27s+astronomy&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2008-12-21&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F7794668.stm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Hydrostatic balance, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hydrostatic+balance&rft.pub=The+Galileo+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fsci%2Finstruments%2Fbalance.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">The Works of Galileo, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=10&exbpg=1, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Galileo&rft.pub=The+University+of+Oklahoma%2C+College+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhsci.ou.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fexhibit.php%3Fexbgrp%3D1%26exbid%3D10%26exbpg%3D1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Sunspots and Floating Bodies, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=13&exbpg=2, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sunspots+and+Floating+Bodies&rft.pub=The+University+of+Oklahoma%2C+College+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhsci.ou.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fexhibit.php%3Fexbgrp%3D1%26exbid%3D13%26exbpg%3D2&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=14&exbpg=3, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%2C+Letter+to+the+Grand+Duchess+Christina&rft.pub=The+University+of+Oklahoma%2C+College+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhsci.ou.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fexhibit.php%3Fexbgrp%3D1%26exbid%3D14%26exbpg%3D3&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Galileo's Theory of the Tides, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/tides.html, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%27s+Theory+of+the+Tides&rft.pub=The+Galileo+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fsci%2Fobservations%2Ftides.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Galileo Timeline, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Timeline&rft.pub=The+Galileo+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fchron%2Fgalileo.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Galileo Galilei, Tel-Aviv University, Science and Technology Education Center, http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/galileo.html, retrieved 2008-07-17</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.pub=Tel-Aviv+University%2C+Science+and+Technology+Education+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.tau.ac.il%2Fmuseum%2Fgalileo%2Fgalileo.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119">^ [1]</li> <li id="cite_note-120">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFFischer2001" class="book">Fischer, Daniel (2001). Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the Galileo Spacecraft. Springer. pp. v. ISBN 0-387-98764-9.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mission+Jupiter%3A+The+Spectacular+Journey+of+the+%27%27Galileo%27%27+Spacecraft&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Fischer%2C+Daniel&rft.date=2001&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3Bv&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=0-387-98764-9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121">^ <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Educational.2C_Scientific_and_Cultural_Organization2005" class="web">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August 2005). "Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy" (PDF). UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140317e.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-10.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Proclamation+of+2009+as+International+year+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=United+Nations+Educational%2C+Scientific+and+Cultural+Organization&rft.au=United+Nations+Educational%2C+Scientific+and+Cultural+Organization&rft.date=11+August+2005&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fimages%2F0014%2F001403%2F140317e.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> </li>

</ol>

</div>

<ul>

<li>Villa Il Gioiello (Galileo's main home in Florence)</li>

</ul>

<ul>

<li><cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFAllan-Olney1870" class="book">Allan-Olney, Mary (1870). <a class="external text" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=zWcSAAAAIAAJ" href="http://books.google <li><cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFAllan-Olney1870" class="book">Allan-Olney, Mary (1870). <a class="external text" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=zWcSAAAAIAAJ" rel="nofollow" href="http:

</ul>

</div>

<h2>External links</h2>

<ul>

<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.imss.fi.it/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.imss.fi.it/~~" rel="nofollow~~">History of Science Museum - Florence</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Galileo.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Galileo.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Portraits of Galileo</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://asv.vatican.va/en/stud/download/CAV_21.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://asv.vatican.va/en/stud/download/CAV_21.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">Original documents on the trial of Galileo Galilei</a> in the <a title="Vatican Secret Archives" href="/wiki/Vatican_Secret_Archives">Vatican Secret Archives</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://web.archive.org/web/20071209222631/http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html" ~~href~~rel="nofollow" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20071209222631/http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Galileo Affair catholic.net</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://galileo.rice.edu/" rel="nofollow" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/~~" rel="nofollow~~">The Galileo Project</a> at <a title="Rice University" href="/wiki/Rice_University">Rice University</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/~~" rel="nofollow~~">PBS Nova Online: Galileo's Battle for the Heavens</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/" ~~href~~rel="~~http~~nofollow" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/~~" rel="nofollow~~">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Galileo</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.galilean-library.org/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/~~" rel="nofollow~~">The Galilean Library</a>, educational site.</li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.catholicleague.org/research/galileo.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.catholicleague.org/research/galileo.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Galileo and the Catholic Church</a> article at Catholic League</li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956139/" ~~href~~rel="nofollow" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956139/~~" rel="nofollow~~">Animated Hero Classics: Galileo (1997)</a> at the <a title="Internet Movie Database" href="/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database">Internet Movie Database</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM~~" rel="nofollow~~">Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72)</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-3254" rel="nofollow" href="http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-3254~~" rel="nofollow~~">Works by or about Galileo Galilei</a> in libraries (<a title="WorldCat" href="/wiki/WorldCat">WorldCat</a> catalog)</li> <li>Galileo's 1590 De Motu translation <a class="external autonumber" title="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo" ~~href~~rel="~~http~~nofollow" href="http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo~~" rel="nofollow~~">[5]</a></li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT158.HTM" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT158.HTM~~" rel="nofollow~~">Works by Galileo Galilei</a>: text with concordances and frequencies.</li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope/~~" rel="nofollow~~">CCD Images through a Galilean Telescope</a> Modern recreation of what Galileo might have seen</li> <li>Galilei, Galileo. <a class="external text" title="http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galgal/index.html" ~~href~~rel="nofollow" href="http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galgal/index.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare</a> 1610 Rome. From <a title="Rare Book Room" href="/wiki/Rare_Book_Room">Rare Book Room</a>. Scanned first edition.</li> <li>Galilei, Galileo. <a class="external text" title="http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galsol/index.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galsol/index.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Istoria e Dimostrazioni Intorno Alle Macchie Solar</a> 1613 Rome. From <a title="Rare Book Room" href="/wiki/Rare_Book_Room">Rare Book Room</a>. Scanned first edition.</li> <li><cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal" id="CITEREFO.27ConnorRobertson"><a class="mw-redirect" title="John J. O'Connor (mathematician)" href="/wiki/John_J._O%27Connor_(mathematician)">O'Connor, John J.</a>; <a title="Edmund F. Robertson" href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, "<a class="external text" title="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Galileo Galilei</a>", <a title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive" href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Galileo+Galilei&rft.atitle=%5B%5BMacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+archive%5D%5D&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Galileo_Galilei"> .</li> <li>Linda Hall Library features a <a class="external text" title="http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,5292" rel="nofollow" href="http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,5292~~" rel="nofollow~~">first edition of Sidereus Nuncius Magna</a> as well as a <a class="external text" title="http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,426" rel="nofollow" href="http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,426~~" rel="nofollow~~">pirated edition from the same year</a>, both fully digitized.</li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk&feature=related" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk&feature=related~~" rel="nofollow~~">Feather & Hammer Drop on Moon</a></li>

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