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<h2>What is Model organism? A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. </h2>
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<h2>Viruses</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Phage lambda</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">Phi X 174</a> - its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> was the first ever to be sequenced. The genome is a circle of 11 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, 5386 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in length.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SV40" title="SV40">SV40</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T4_phage" title="T4 phage">T4 phage</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">Tobacco mosaic virus</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">Herpes simplex virus</a></li>
</ul>
<h2>Prokaryotes[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prokaryotes">edit</a>]</h2>
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<p>Sporulating <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></em> (<em>E. coli</em>) - This common, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative</a> gut bacterium is the most widely used organism in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></em> - an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospore</a> forming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive</a> bacterium</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulobacter_crescentus" title="Caulobacter crescentus">Caulobacter crescentus</a></em> - a bacterium that divides into two distinct cells used to study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium" title="Mycoplasma genitalium">Mycoplasma genitalium</a></em> - a minimal organism</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliivibrio_fischeri" title="Aliivibrio fischeri">Aliivibrio fischeri</a></em> - <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a> and animal-bacterial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_bobtail_squid" title="Hawaiian bobtail squid">Hawaiian bobtail squid</a></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></em>, a photosynthetic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterium</a> widely used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> research.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens" title="Pseudomonas fluorescens">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a></em>, a soil bacterium that readily diversifies into different strains in the lab.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Eukaryotes[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eukaryotes">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Protists[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Protists">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em> - a unicellular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_alga" title="Green alga">green alga</a> used to study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagella" title="Flagella">flagella</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>, regulation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, cell-cell recognition and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">adhesion</a>, response to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">nutrient deprivation</a> and many other topics. <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em> has well-studied genetics, with many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Sequencing of the <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em> genome was reported in October 2007.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> A <em>Chlamydomonas</em> genetic stock center exists at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>, and an international <em>Chlamydomonas</em> research interest group meets on a regular basis to discuss research results. <em>Chlamydomonas</em> is easy to grow on an inexpensive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">defined medium</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyostelium_discoideum" title="Dictyostelium discoideum">Dictyostelium discoideum</a></em> is used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> (its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> has been sequenced), and is studied as an example of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_communication" title="Cell communication">cell communication</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">programmed cell death</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahymena_thermophila" title="Tetrahymena thermophila">Tetrahymena thermophila</a></em> - a free living freshwater <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan" title="Protozoan">protozoan</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></em> - a unicellular marine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> alga, extensively studied as a model <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> species.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></em> - a unicellular marine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatom</a> alga, extensively studied as a model marine diatom since its genome was published in 2004</li>
</ul>
<h3>Fungi[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fungi">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashbya_gossypii" title="Ashbya gossypii">Ashbya gossypii</a></em>, cotton pathogen, subject of genetics studies (polarity, cell cycle)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulans" title="Aspergillus nidulans">Aspergillus nidulans</a></em>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a> subject of genetics studies</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinus_cinereus" title="Coprinus cinereus">Coprinus cinereus</a></em>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> (genetic studies of mushroom development, genetic studies of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>)<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-pmid10839819-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></em>, opportunistic human pathogen</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></em> - orange bread <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a> (genetic studies of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, metabolic regulation, and <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a></em>)<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></em>, baker's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> or budding yeast (used in brewing and baking)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophyllum_commune" title="Schizophyllum commune">Schizophyllum commune</a></em> - model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> formation.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></em>, fission yeast, (cell cycle, cell polarity, RNAi, centromere structure and function, transcription)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustilago_maydis" title="Ustilago maydis">Ustilago maydis</a></em>, dimorphic yeast and plant pathogen of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (dimorphism, plant pathogen, transcription)</li>
</ul>
<h3>Plants[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</h3>
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<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></em>, currently the most popular model plant. This herbaceous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicot" title="Dicot">dicot</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a> family is closely related to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard plant</a>. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequenced</a>.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> Its genome sequence, along with a wide range of information concerning <em>Arabidopsis</em>, is maintained by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">TAIR</a> database.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup><br />
<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li>The genus <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boechera" title="Boechera">Boechera</a></em> combines some of the experimental tractability and genetic tools developed for its close relative <em>Arabidopsis</em> with a largely undisturbed natural history, making it a promising model system for research at the intersection of genetics, genomics, ecology, and evolution. The genus includes species with the rare trait of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploid" title="Diploid">diploid</a> level.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><br />
<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_genetics" title="Evolutionary genetics">Evolutionary genetics</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selaginella_moellendorffii" title="Selaginella moellendorffii">Selaginella moellendorffii</a></em> is a remnant of an ancient lineage of vascular plants that is key to understanding the evolution of land plants. It has a small genome size (~110Mb) and its sequence was released by the Joint Genome Institute in early 2008. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachypodium_distachyon" title="Brachypodium distachyon">Brachypodium distachyon</a></em> is an emerging experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setaria_viridis" title="Setaria viridis">Setaria viridis</a></em> is an emerging model grass for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_photosynthesis" title="C4 photosynthesis">C4 photosynthesis</a> and related bioenergy grasses.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-JiangBarbier2013-9">[9]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_(genus)" title="Lotus (genus)">Lotus japonicus</a></em> a model <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legume</a> used to study the symbiosis responsible for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a></em> is a rapidly growing aquatic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocot" title="Monocot">monocot</a>, one of the smallest flowering plants. Lemna growth assays are used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals to plants in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">ecotoxicology</a>. Because it can be grown in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_culture" title="Pure culture">pure culture</a>, microbial action can be excluded. Lemna is being used as a recombinant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression system</a> for economical production of complex <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">biopharmaceuticals</a>. It is also used in education to demonstrate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">population growth curves</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (<em>Zea mays</em> L.) is a cereal grain. It is a diploid monocot with 10 large chromosome pairs, easily studied with the microscope. Its genetic features, including many known and mapped phenotypic mutants and a large number of progeny per cross (typically 100-200) facilitated the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon" title="Transposon">transposons</a> ("jumping genes"). Many DNA markers have been mapped and the genome has been sequenced. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></em> is a model legume, closely related to the common <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>. Its rather small genome is currently being sequenced. It is used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimulus_guttatus" title="Mimulus guttatus">Mimulus guttatus</a></em> is a model organism used in evolutionary and functional genomes studies. The genus <em>Mimulus</em> contains c. 120 species and is in the family <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrymaceae" title="Phrymaceae">Phrymaceae</a>. Several genetic resources have been designed for the study of this genus and some are free access (<a href="http://www.mimulusevolution.org/" rel="nofollow">http://www.mimulusevolution.org</a>)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_benthamiana" title="Nicotiana benthamiana">Nicotiana benthamiana</a></em> is often considered a model organism for plant-pathogen studies.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_tabacum_cv._BY-2" title="Nicotiana tabacum cv. BY-2">Tobacco BY-2 cells</a></em> is a suspension <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cell line</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (<em>Nicotiana tabacum</em>) that is useful for general plant physiology studies at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> level. The genome of this particular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivar</a> will not be sequenced in the near future, but sequencing of its wild <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> <em>Nicotiana tabacum</em> is presently in progress. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> (<em>Oryza sativa</em>) is used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a> biology. It has one of the smallest genomes of any cereal species, and sequencing of its genome is finished.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></em> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> increasingly used for studies on development and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a> of plants.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a></sup> It is so far the only <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-vascular_plants" title="Non-vascular plants">non-vascular plant</a>(and so the only "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics#Three_definitions_of_clade" title="Cladistics">primitive</a>" plant) with its genome completely sequenced.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a></sup> Moreover, it is currently the only land plant with efficient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">gene targeting</a> that enables <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a>.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> The resulting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knockout_moss" title="Knockout moss">knockout mosses</a> are stored and distributed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" title="International Moss Stock Center">International Moss Stock Center</a>. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchantia_polymorpha" title="Marchantia polymorpha">Marchantia polymorpha</a></em> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverwort" title="Liverwort">liverwort</a> that is also emerging as a model for plant biology and development.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus</a></em> is a genus used as a model in forest genetics and woody plant studies. It has a small genome size, grows very rapidly, and is easily transformed. The genome sequence of black cottonwood (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus_trichocarpa" title="Populus trichocarpa">Populus trichocarpa</a></em>) is publicly available.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></li>
<li>See also <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism#Protists" title="Model organism">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em>, above under Protists.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Animals[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Animals">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates" title="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</a>[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Invertebrates">edit</a>]</h4>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphimedon_queenslandica" title="Amphimedon queenslandica">Amphimedon queenslandica</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">demosponge</a> from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-PMID20686567-15">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbacia_punctulata" title="Arbacia punctulata">Arbacia punctulata</a></em>, the purple-spined <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, classical subject of embryological studies</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a></em>, a sea slug, whose ink release response serves as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a> and whose <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_cones" title="Growth cones">growth cones</a> serve as a model of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeletal" title="Cytoskeletal">cytoskeletal</a> rearrangements</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchiostoma_floridae" title="Branchiostoma floridae">Branchiostoma floridae</a></em>, a species commonly known as amphioxus or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</a> from the subphylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalochordata" title="Cephalochordata">Cephalochordata</a> of the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordata" title="Chordata">Chordata</a> used as a model for understanding the evolution of nonchordate deuterostomes, invertebrate chordates, and vertebrates<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a>, usually called <em>C. elegans</em><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> - an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. C.elegans has a fixed number of 1031 cells. <em>C. elegans</em> was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced</li>
<li><em>Caledia captiva</em> (Orthoptera) in eastern Australia, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callosobruchus_maculatus" title="Callosobruchus maculatus">Callosobruchus maculatus</a></em>, the bruchid beetle, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorthippus_parallelus" title="Chorthippus parallelus">Chorthippus parallelus</a></em>, the meadow grasshopper, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciona_intestinalis" title="Ciona intestinalis">Ciona intestinalis</a></em>, a sea squirt</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphnia" title="Daphnia">Daphnia spp.</a></em>, small planktonic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, highly sensitive to pollution, used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic invertebrates.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelopidae" title="Coelopidae">Coelopidae</a> - seaweed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diopsidae" title="Diopsidae">Diopsidae</a> - stalk-eyed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></em>, usually the species <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></em> - a kind of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">fruit fly</a>, famous as the subject of genetics experiments by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> and others. Easily raised in lab, rapid generations, mutations easily induced, many observable mutations. Recently, <em>Drosophila</em> has been used for neuropharmacological research.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>)</em>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euprymna_scolopes" title="Euprymna scolopes">Euprymna scolopes</a></em>, the Hawaiian bobtail squid, model for animal-bacterial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrios</a></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleria_mellonella" title="Galleria mellonella">Galleria mellonella</a></em> (the greater wax moth), the larvae of which are an excellent model organism for in vivo toxicology and pathogenicity testing, replacing the use of small mammals in such experiments.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryllus_bimaculatus" title="Gryllus bimaculatus">Gryllus bimaculatus</a></em>, the field cricket, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidarian" title="Cnidarian">Cnidarian</a>, is the model organism to understand the processes of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>, as well as the evolution of bilaterian body plans<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loligo_pealei" title="Loligo pealei">Loligo pealei</a></em>, a squid, subject of studies of nerve function because of its giant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a> (nearly 1 mm diameter, roughly a thousand times larger than typical mammalian axons)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrostomum_lignano" title="Macrostomum lignano">Macrostomum lignano</a></em>, a free-living, marine flatworm, a model organism for the study of stem cells, regeneration, ageing, gene function, and the evolution of sex. Easily raised in the lab, short generation time, indetermined growth, complex behaviour<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemiopsis_leidyi" title="Mnemiopsis leidyi">Mnemiopsis leidyi</a></em>, from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> (comb jelly) used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematostella_vectensis" title="Nematostella vectensis">Nematostella vectensis</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a> from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikopleura_dioica" title="Oikopleura dioica">Oikopleura dioica</a></em>,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvacea" title="Larvacea">appendicularian</a>, a free-swimming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicate (or urochordate)</a>)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscarella_carmela" title="Oscarella carmela">Oscarella carmela</a></em> a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoscleromorph" title="Homoscleromorph">homoscleromorph</a> sponge (phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>) used as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parhyale_hawaiensis" title="Parhyale hawaiensis">Parhyale hawaiensis</a></em> an amphipod crustacean, used in evolutionary developmental (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evo-devo" title="Evo-devo">evo-devo</a>) studies, with an extensive toolbox for genetic manipulation.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platynereis_dumerilii" title="Platynereis dumerilii">Platynereis dumerilii</a></em> a marine polychaetous annelid, which evolved very slowly and therefore retained many ancestral features.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Podisma</a></em> spp. in the Alps, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristionchus_pacificus" title="Pristionchus pacificus">Pristionchus pacificus</a></em>, a roundworm used in evolutionary developmental biology in comparative analyses with <em>C. elegans</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scathophaga_stercoraria" title="Scathophaga stercoraria">Scathophaga stercoraria</a></em>, the yellow dung fly, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidtea_mediterranea" title="Schmidtea mediterranea">Schmidtea mediterranea</a></em> a freshwater planarian; a model for regeneration and development of tissues such as the brain and germline</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomatogastric_nervous_system" title="Stomatogastric nervous system">Stomatogastric ganglion</a> of various <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> species; a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_pattern_generation" title="Motor pattern generation">motor pattern generation</a> seen in all repetitive motions</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></em>, the purple <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, widely used in developmental biology</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symsagittifera_roscoffensis" title="Symsagittifera roscoffensis">Symsagittifera roscoffensis</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworm</a>, subject of studies of bilaterian body plan development</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribolium_castaneum" title="Tribolium castaneum">Tribolium castaneum</a></em>, the flour beetle - a small, easily kept <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkling_beetle" title="Darkling beetle">darkling beetle</a> used especially in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_ecology" title="Behavioural ecology">behavioural ecology</a> experiments</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoplax_adhaerens" title="Trichoplax adhaerens">Trichoplax adhaerens</a></em>, a very simple free-living animal from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> used as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubifex_tubifex" title="Tubifex tubifex">Tubifex tubifex</a></em>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligochaeta" title="Oligochaeta">oligochaeta</a> used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic and terrestrial worms.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<h4><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates" title="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</a>[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vertebrates">edit</a>]</h4>
<p> </p>
<p>Laboratory <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">mice</a></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombina" title="Bombina">Bombina</a> bombina</em> and <em>Bombina variegata</em>, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_anole" title="Carolina anole">Carolina anole</a> (<em>Anolis carolinensis</em>), used to study reptile genomics</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">Cat</a> (<em>Felis sylvestris catus</em>) - used in neurophysiological research.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">Chicken</a> (<em>Gallus gallus domesticus</em>) - used for developmental studies, as it is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniote</a>and excellent for micromanipulation (e.g. tissue grafting) and over-expression of gene products.</li>
<li>Cotton rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmodon_hispidus" title="Sigmodon hispidus">Sigmodon hispidus</a></em>) - formerly used in polio research.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">Dog</a> (<em>Canis lupus familiaris</em>) - an important respiratory and cardiovascular model, also contributed to the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_hamster" title="Golden hamster">Golden hamster</a> (<em>Mesocricetus auratus</em>) - first used to study kala-azar (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>).</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pig</a> (<em>Cavia porcellus</em>) - used by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, hence a byword for "laboratory animal" even though less commonly used today.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_brown_bat" title="Little brown bat">Little brown bat</a> (<em>Myotis lucifugus</em>)- used to prove echolocation exists in bats in 1930s and also used in experiments predicting microbat behavior as it is a reliable species that has typical features of a temperate bat species.</li>
<li>Medaka (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oryzias_latipes" title="Oryzias latipes">Oryzias latipes</a></em>, or Japanese ricefish) - an important model in developmental biology, and has the advantage of being much sturdier than the traditional zebrafish.</li>
<li>Mouse (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a></em>) - the classic model vertebrate. Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, voluntary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel-running" title="Wheel-running">wheel-running</a> behavior.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">Naked mole-rat</a>, (<em>Heterocephalus glaber</em>), studied for their characteristic pain insensitivity, thermoregulation, cancer resistance, eusociality, and longevity.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothobranchius_furzeri" title="Nothobranchius furzeri">Nothobranchius furzeri</a> is studied because of their extreme short-lifespan in research on aging, disease and evolution.</li>
<li>Pigeon (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_pigeon" title="Domestic pigeon">Columba livia domestica</a></em>), studied extensively for cognitive science and animal intelligence</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poecilia_reticulata" title="Poecilia reticulata">Poecilia reticulata</a></em>, the guppy, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li>Rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattus_norvegicus" title="Rattus norvegicus">Rattus norvegicus</a></em>) - particularly useful as a toxicology model; also particularly useful as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus macaque</a> (or rhesus monkey) (<em>Macaca mulatta</em>) - used for studies on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_lamprey" title="Sea lamprey">Sea lamprey</a> (<em>Petromyzon marinus</em>) - spinal cord research</li>
<li>Takifugu (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takifugu_rubripes" title="Takifugu rubripes">Takifugu rubripes</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pufferfish" title="Pufferfish">pufferfish</a>) - has a small genome with little <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">junk DNA</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-spined_stickleback" title="Three-spined stickleback">Three-spined stickleback</a> (<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>), a fish used to study ethology and behavioral ecology.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_tropicalis" title="Xenopus tropicalis">Xenopus tropicalis</a></em> and <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a></em> (African clawed frog) - eggs and embryos from these frogs are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-wallingford-32">[32]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Harland-33">[33]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_finch" title="Zebra finch">Zebra finch</a> (<em>Taeniopygia guttata</em>) - used in the study of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_system" title="Song system">song system</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a> and the study of non-mammalian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory systems</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a> (<em>Danio rerio</em>, a freshwater fish) - has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.</li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<h2> </h2>
<h2> </h2>
<h2> </h2>
<h2>Viruses</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Phage lambda</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">Phi X 174</a> - its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> was the first ever to be sequenced. The genome is a circle of 11 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, 5386 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in length.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SV40" title="SV40">SV40</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T4_phage" title="T4 phage">T4 phage</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus">Tobacco mosaic virus</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">Herpes simplex virus</a></li>
</ul>
<h2>Prokaryotes[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prokaryotes">edit</a>]</h2>
<p> </p>
<p>Sporulating <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></em> (<em>E. coli</em>) - This common, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative</a> gut bacterium is the most widely used organism in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></em> - an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospore</a> forming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive</a> bacterium</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulobacter_crescentus" title="Caulobacter crescentus">Caulobacter crescentus</a></em> - a bacterium that divides into two distinct cells used to study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium" title="Mycoplasma genitalium">Mycoplasma genitalium</a></em> - a minimal organism</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliivibrio_fischeri" title="Aliivibrio fischeri">Aliivibrio fischeri</a></em> - <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a> and animal-bacterial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_bobtail_squid" title="Hawaiian bobtail squid">Hawaiian bobtail squid</a></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></em>, a photosynthetic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterium</a> widely used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> research.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens" title="Pseudomonas fluorescens">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a></em>, a soil bacterium that readily diversifies into different strains in the lab.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Eukaryotes[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eukaryotes">edit</a>]</h2>
<h3>Protists[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Protists">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em> - a unicellular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_alga" title="Green alga">green alga</a> used to study <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagella" title="Flagella">flagella</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>, regulation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, cell-cell recognition and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">adhesion</a>, response to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">nutrient deprivation</a> and many other topics. <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em> has well-studied genetics, with many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> Sequencing of the <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em> genome was reported in October 2007.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> A <em>Chlamydomonas</em> genetic stock center exists at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>, and an international <em>Chlamydomonas</em> research interest group meets on a regular basis to discuss research results. <em>Chlamydomonas</em> is easy to grow on an inexpensive <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">defined medium</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyostelium_discoideum" title="Dictyostelium discoideum">Dictyostelium discoideum</a></em> is used in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> (its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> has been sequenced), and is studied as an example of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_communication" title="Cell communication">cell communication</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">programmed cell death</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahymena_thermophila" title="Tetrahymena thermophila">Tetrahymena thermophila</a></em> - a free living freshwater <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan" title="Protozoan">protozoan</a>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></em> - a unicellular marine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> alga, extensively studied as a model <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> species.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></em> - a unicellular marine <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatom</a> alga, extensively studied as a model marine diatom since its genome was published in 2004</li>
</ul>
<h3>Fungi[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fungi">edit</a>]</h3>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashbya_gossypii" title="Ashbya gossypii">Ashbya gossypii</a></em>, cotton pathogen, subject of genetics studies (polarity, cell cycle)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulans" title="Aspergillus nidulans">Aspergillus nidulans</a></em>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a> subject of genetics studies</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinus_cinereus" title="Coprinus cinereus">Coprinus cinereus</a></em>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> (genetic studies of mushroom development, genetic studies of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>)<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-pmid10839819-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></em>, opportunistic human pathogen</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></em> - orange bread <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a> (genetic studies of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, metabolic regulation, and <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a></em>)<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></em>, baker's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> or budding yeast (used in brewing and baking)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophyllum_commune" title="Schizophyllum commune">Schizophyllum commune</a></em> - model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> formation.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></em>, fission yeast, (cell cycle, cell polarity, RNAi, centromere structure and function, transcription)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustilago_maydis" title="Ustilago maydis">Ustilago maydis</a></em>, dimorphic yeast and plant pathogen of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (dimorphism, plant pathogen, transcription)</li>
</ul>
<h3>Plants[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</h3>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></em>, currently the most popular model plant. This herbaceous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicot" title="Dicot">dicot</a> of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a> family is closely related to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard plant</a>. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequenced</a>.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup> Its genome sequence, along with a wide range of information concerning <em>Arabidopsis</em>, is maintained by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">TAIR</a> database.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a></sup><br />
<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li>The genus <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boechera" title="Boechera">Boechera</a></em> combines some of the experimental tractability and genetic tools developed for its close relative <em>Arabidopsis</em> with a largely undisturbed natural history, making it a promising model system for research at the intersection of genetics, genomics, ecology, and evolution. The genus includes species with the rare trait of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a> at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploid" title="Diploid">diploid</a> level.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><br />
<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_genetics" title="Evolutionary genetics">Evolutionary genetics</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selaginella_moellendorffii" title="Selaginella moellendorffii">Selaginella moellendorffii</a></em> is a remnant of an ancient lineage of vascular plants that is key to understanding the evolution of land plants. It has a small genome size (~110Mb) and its sequence was released by the Joint Genome Institute in early 2008. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachypodium_distachyon" title="Brachypodium distachyon">Brachypodium distachyon</a></em> is an emerging experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setaria_viridis" title="Setaria viridis">Setaria viridis</a></em> is an emerging model grass for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_photosynthesis" title="C4 photosynthesis">C4 photosynthesis</a> and related bioenergy grasses.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-JiangBarbier2013-9">[9]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_(genus)" title="Lotus (genus)">Lotus japonicus</a></em> a model <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legume</a> used to study the symbiosis responsible for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a></em> is a rapidly growing aquatic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocot" title="Monocot">monocot</a>, one of the smallest flowering plants. Lemna growth assays are used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals to plants in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">ecotoxicology</a>. Because it can be grown in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_culture" title="Pure culture">pure culture</a>, microbial action can be excluded. Lemna is being used as a recombinant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression system</a> for economical production of complex <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">biopharmaceuticals</a>. It is also used in education to demonstrate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">population growth curves</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (<em>Zea mays</em> L.) is a cereal grain. It is a diploid monocot with 10 large chromosome pairs, easily studied with the microscope. Its genetic features, including many known and mapped phenotypic mutants and a large number of progeny per cross (typically 100-200) facilitated the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon" title="Transposon">transposons</a> ("jumping genes"). Many DNA markers have been mapped and the genome has been sequenced. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></em> is a model legume, closely related to the common <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>. Its rather small genome is currently being sequenced. It is used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimulus_guttatus" title="Mimulus guttatus">Mimulus guttatus</a></em> is a model organism used in evolutionary and functional genomes studies. The genus <em>Mimulus</em> contains c. 120 species and is in the family <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrymaceae" title="Phrymaceae">Phrymaceae</a>. Several genetic resources have been designed for the study of this genus and some are free access (<a href="http://www.mimulusevolution.org/" rel="nofollow">http://www.mimulusevolution.org</a>)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_benthamiana" title="Nicotiana benthamiana">Nicotiana benthamiana</a></em> is often considered a model organism for plant-pathogen studies.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_tabacum_cv._BY-2" title="Nicotiana tabacum cv. BY-2">Tobacco BY-2 cells</a></em> is a suspension <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cell line</a> from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> (<em>Nicotiana tabacum</em>) that is useful for general plant physiology studies at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> level. The genome of this particular <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivar</a> will not be sequenced in the near future, but sequencing of its wild <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> <em>Nicotiana tabacum</em> is presently in progress. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> (<em>Oryza sativa</em>) is used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a> biology. It has one of the smallest genomes of any cereal species, and sequencing of its genome is finished.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></em> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> increasingly used for studies on development and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a> of plants.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a></sup> It is so far the only <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-vascular_plants" title="Non-vascular plants">non-vascular plant</a>(and so the only "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics#Three_definitions_of_clade" title="Cladistics">primitive</a>" plant) with its genome completely sequenced.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a></sup> Moreover, it is currently the only land plant with efficient <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">gene targeting</a> that enables <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a>.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> The resulting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knockout_moss" title="Knockout moss">knockout mosses</a> are stored and distributed by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" title="International Moss Stock Center">International Moss Stock Center</a>. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchantia_polymorpha" title="Marchantia polymorpha">Marchantia polymorpha</a></em> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverwort" title="Liverwort">liverwort</a> that is also emerging as a model for plant biology and development.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus</a></em> is a genus used as a model in forest genetics and woody plant studies. It has a small genome size, grows very rapidly, and is easily transformed. The genome sequence of black cottonwood (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus_trichocarpa" title="Populus trichocarpa">Populus trichocarpa</a></em>) is publicly available.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></li>
<li>See also <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism#Protists" title="Model organism">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em>, above under Protists.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Animals[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Animals">edit</a>]</h3>
<h4><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates" title="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</a>[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Invertebrates">edit</a>]</h4>
<p> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphimedon_queenslandica" title="Amphimedon queenslandica">Amphimedon queenslandica</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">demosponge</a> from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-PMID20686567-15">[15]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbacia_punctulata" title="Arbacia punctulata">Arbacia punctulata</a></em>, the purple-spined <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, classical subject of embryological studies</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a></em>, a sea slug, whose ink release response serves as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a> and whose <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_cones" title="Growth cones">growth cones</a> serve as a model of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeletal" title="Cytoskeletal">cytoskeletal</a> rearrangements</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchiostoma_floridae" title="Branchiostoma floridae">Branchiostoma floridae</a></em>, a species commonly known as amphioxus or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</a> from the subphylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalochordata" title="Cephalochordata">Cephalochordata</a> of the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordata" title="Chordata">Chordata</a> used as a model for understanding the evolution of nonchordate deuterostomes, invertebrate chordates, and vertebrates<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a>, usually called <em>C. elegans</em><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> - an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. C.elegans has a fixed number of 1031 cells. <em>C. elegans</em> was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced</li>
<li><em>Caledia captiva</em> (Orthoptera) in eastern Australia, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callosobruchus_maculatus" title="Callosobruchus maculatus">Callosobruchus maculatus</a></em>, the bruchid beetle, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorthippus_parallelus" title="Chorthippus parallelus">Chorthippus parallelus</a></em>, the meadow grasshopper, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciona_intestinalis" title="Ciona intestinalis">Ciona intestinalis</a></em>, a sea squirt</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphnia" title="Daphnia">Daphnia spp.</a></em>, small planktonic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, highly sensitive to pollution, used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic invertebrates.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelopidae" title="Coelopidae">Coelopidae</a> - seaweed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diopsidae" title="Diopsidae">Diopsidae</a> - stalk-eyed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></em>, usually the species <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></em> - a kind of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">fruit fly</a>, famous as the subject of genetics experiments by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> and others. Easily raised in lab, rapid generations, mutations easily induced, many observable mutations. Recently, <em>Drosophila</em> has been used for neuropharmacological research.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>)</em>.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euprymna_scolopes" title="Euprymna scolopes">Euprymna scolopes</a></em>, the Hawaiian bobtail squid, model for animal-bacterial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrios</a></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleria_mellonella" title="Galleria mellonella">Galleria mellonella</a></em> (the greater wax moth), the larvae of which are an excellent model organism for in vivo toxicology and pathogenicity testing, replacing the use of small mammals in such experiments.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryllus_bimaculatus" title="Gryllus bimaculatus">Gryllus bimaculatus</a></em>, the field cricket, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidarian" title="Cnidarian">Cnidarian</a>, is the model organism to understand the processes of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>, as well as the evolution of bilaterian body plans<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loligo_pealei" title="Loligo pealei">Loligo pealei</a></em>, a squid, subject of studies of nerve function because of its giant <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a> (nearly 1 mm diameter, roughly a thousand times larger than typical mammalian axons)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrostomum_lignano" title="Macrostomum lignano">Macrostomum lignano</a></em>, a free-living, marine flatworm, a model organism for the study of stem cells, regeneration, ageing, gene function, and the evolution of sex. Easily raised in the lab, short generation time, indetermined growth, complex behaviour<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemiopsis_leidyi" title="Mnemiopsis leidyi">Mnemiopsis leidyi</a></em>, from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> (comb jelly) used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematostella_vectensis" title="Nematostella vectensis">Nematostella vectensis</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a> from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> used as a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikopleura_dioica" title="Oikopleura dioica">Oikopleura dioica</a></em>,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvacea" title="Larvacea">appendicularian</a>, a free-swimming <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicate (or urochordate)</a>)</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscarella_carmela" title="Oscarella carmela">Oscarella carmela</a></em> a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoscleromorph" title="Homoscleromorph">homoscleromorph</a> sponge (phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>) used as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parhyale_hawaiensis" title="Parhyale hawaiensis">Parhyale hawaiensis</a></em> an amphipod crustacean, used in evolutionary developmental (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evo-devo" title="Evo-devo">evo-devo</a>) studies, with an extensive toolbox for genetic manipulation.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platynereis_dumerilii" title="Platynereis dumerilii">Platynereis dumerilii</a></em> a marine polychaetous annelid, which evolved very slowly and therefore retained many ancestral features.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Podisma</a></em> spp. in the Alps, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristionchus_pacificus" title="Pristionchus pacificus">Pristionchus pacificus</a></em>, a roundworm used in evolutionary developmental biology in comparative analyses with <em>C. elegans</em></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scathophaga_stercoraria" title="Scathophaga stercoraria">Scathophaga stercoraria</a></em>, the yellow dung fly, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidtea_mediterranea" title="Schmidtea mediterranea">Schmidtea mediterranea</a></em> a freshwater planarian; a model for regeneration and development of tissues such as the brain and germline</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomatogastric_nervous_system" title="Stomatogastric nervous system">Stomatogastric ganglion</a> of various <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> species; a model for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_pattern_generation" title="Motor pattern generation">motor pattern generation</a> seen in all repetitive motions</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></em>, the purple <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, widely used in developmental biology</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symsagittifera_roscoffensis" title="Symsagittifera roscoffensis">Symsagittifera roscoffensis</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworm</a>, subject of studies of bilaterian body plan development</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribolium_castaneum" title="Tribolium castaneum">Tribolium castaneum</a></em>, the flour beetle - a small, easily kept <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkling_beetle" title="Darkling beetle">darkling beetle</a> used especially in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_ecology" title="Behavioural ecology">behavioural ecology</a> experiments</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoplax_adhaerens" title="Trichoplax adhaerens">Trichoplax adhaerens</a></em>, a very simple free-living animal from the phylum <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> used as a model in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup></li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubifex_tubifex" title="Tubifex tubifex">Tubifex tubifex</a></em>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligochaeta" title="Oligochaeta">oligochaeta</a> used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic and terrestrial worms.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
<h4><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates" title="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</a>[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vertebrates">edit</a>]</h4>
<p> </p>
<p>Laboratory <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">mice</a></p>
<ul>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombina" title="Bombina">Bombina</a> bombina</em> and <em>Bombina variegata</em>, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_anole" title="Carolina anole">Carolina anole</a> (<em>Anolis carolinensis</em>), used to study reptile genomics</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">Cat</a> (<em>Felis sylvestris catus</em>) - used in neurophysiological research.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">Chicken</a> (<em>Gallus gallus domesticus</em>) - used for developmental studies, as it is an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniote</a>and excellent for micromanipulation (e.g. tissue grafting) and over-expression of gene products.</li>
<li>Cotton rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmodon_hispidus" title="Sigmodon hispidus">Sigmodon hispidus</a></em>) - formerly used in polio research.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">Dog</a> (<em>Canis lupus familiaris</em>) - an important respiratory and cardiovascular model, also contributed to the discovery of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_hamster" title="Golden hamster">Golden hamster</a> (<em>Mesocricetus auratus</em>) - first used to study kala-azar (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>).</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pig</a> (<em>Cavia porcellus</em>) - used by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, hence a byword for "laboratory animal" even though less commonly used today.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_brown_bat" title="Little brown bat">Little brown bat</a> (<em>Myotis lucifugus</em>)- used to prove echolocation exists in bats in 1930s and also used in experiments predicting microbat behavior as it is a reliable species that has typical features of a temperate bat species.</li>
<li>Medaka (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oryzias_latipes" title="Oryzias latipes">Oryzias latipes</a></em>, or Japanese ricefish) - an important model in developmental biology, and has the advantage of being much sturdier than the traditional zebrafish.</li>
<li>Mouse (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a></em>) - the classic model vertebrate. Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, voluntary <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel-running" title="Wheel-running">wheel-running</a> behavior.<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">Naked mole-rat</a>, (<em>Heterocephalus glaber</em>), studied for their characteristic pain insensitivity, thermoregulation, cancer resistance, eusociality, and longevity.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothobranchius_furzeri" title="Nothobranchius furzeri">Nothobranchius furzeri</a> is studied because of their extreme short-lifespan in research on aging, disease and evolution.</li>
<li>Pigeon (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_pigeon" title="Domestic pigeon">Columba livia domestica</a></em>), studied extensively for cognitive science and animal intelligence</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poecilia_reticulata" title="Poecilia reticulata">Poecilia reticulata</a></em>, the guppy, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li>
<li>Rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattus_norvegicus" title="Rattus norvegicus">Rattus norvegicus</a></em>) - particularly useful as a toxicology model; also particularly useful as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse. <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus macaque</a> (or rhesus monkey) (<em>Macaca mulatta</em>) - used for studies on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_lamprey" title="Sea lamprey">Sea lamprey</a> (<em>Petromyzon marinus</em>) - spinal cord research</li>
<li>Takifugu (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takifugu_rubripes" title="Takifugu rubripes">Takifugu rubripes</a></em>, a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pufferfish" title="Pufferfish">pufferfish</a>) - has a small genome with little <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">junk DNA</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-spined_stickleback" title="Three-spined stickleback">Three-spined stickleback</a> (<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>), a fish used to study ethology and behavioral ecology.</li>
<li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_tropicalis" title="Xenopus tropicalis">Xenopus tropicalis</a></em> and <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a></em> (African clawed frog) - eggs and embryos from these frogs are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-wallingford-32">[32]</a></sup><sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Harland-33">[33]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_finch" title="Zebra finch">Zebra finch</a> (<em>Taeniopygia guttata</em>) - used in the study of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_system" title="Song system">song system</a> of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a> and the study of non-mammalian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory systems</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a> (<em>Danio rerio</em>, a freshwater fish) - has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,<sup><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.</li>
</ul>
