<h2p><strong>What is Model organism? A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the&nbsp;expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.&nbsp;</h2strong></p>

<p>&nbsp;</p> <h2>&nbsp;</h2> <h2>&nbsp;</h2> <h2>&nbsp;</h2> <h2>Viruses</h2> <ul> <li><a hrefstyle="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">Phage lambda</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">Phi X 174</a>&nbsp;text- its&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>&nbsp;was the first ever to be sequenced. The genome is a circle of 11&nbsp;<a href="httpsalign://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, 5386&nbspcenter;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</astrong>&nbsp;in length.</li> <li><a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SV40" title="SV40#0000CD">SV40</a></li> <li><a hrefspan style="httpsfont-size://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T4_phage" title="T4 phage26px">T4 phage</a></li> <li><a hrefspan style="httpsbackground-color://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_mosaic_virus" title="Tobacco mosaic virus#FFFF00">Tobacco mosaic virusViruses</a></li> <lispan><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus"span>Herpes simplex virus</aspan></listrong></ulp>

<h2p>Prokaryotes[<a href="https:strong>Phage lambda /Phi X 174 /en.wikipedia.orgSV40 /wT4 Phage /index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Prokaryotes">editTobacco mosaic virus / Herpes simplex virus</astrong>]</h2p>

<pstyle="text-align: center;"><strong>Sporulating&nbsp;<emspan style="color:#0000FF"><a hrefspan style="httpsfont-size://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis26px" title><span style="Bacillus subtilisbackground-color:#FFFF00">Bacillus subtilisProkaryotes</span></span></aspan></emstrong></p>

<ulp> <listrong><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli<Bacillus subtilis /a></em>&nbsp;(<em>E. coli</em>) - This common,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative</a>&nbsp;gut bacterium is the most widely used organism in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a></em>&nbsp;- an&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospore</a>&nbsp;forming&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive</a>&nbsp;bacterium</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulobacter_crescentus" title="Caulobacter crescentus">Caulobacter crescentus</a></em>&nbsp;- a bacterium that divides into two distinct cells used to study&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">cellular differentiation</a>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium" title="Mycoplasma genitalium">Mycoplasma genitalium</a></em>&nbsp;- a minimal organism</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliivibrio_fischeri" title="Aliivibrio fischeri">Aliivibrio fischeri</a></em>&nbsp;-&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https:/Synechocytis /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a>&nbsp;and animal-bacterial&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>&nbsp;with&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_bobtail_squid" title="Hawaiian bobtail squid">Hawaiian bobtail squid</a></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechocystis" title="Synechocystis">Synechocystis</a></em>, a photosynthetic&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacterium</a>&nbsp;widely used in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>&nbsp;research.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens" title="Pseudomonas Psedomonas fluorescens">Pseudomonas fluorescens</a></em>, a soil bacterium that readily diversifies into different strains in the lab.</li></ul> <h2>Eukaryotes[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Eukaryotes">edit</a>]</h2> <h3>Protists[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Protists">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydomonas_reinhardtii" title="Chlamydomonas reinhardtii">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em>&nbsp;- a unicellular&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_alga" title="Green alga">green alga</a>&nbsp;used to study&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagella" title="Flagella">flagella</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>, regulation of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, cell-cell recognition and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">adhesion</a>, response to&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">nutrient deprivation</a>&nbsp;and many other topics.&nbsp;<em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em>&nbsp;has well-studied genetics, with many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-1">[1]</a>}&nbsp;Sequencing of the&nbsp;<em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em>&nbsp;genome was reported in October 2007.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-2">[2]</a>}&nbsp;A&nbsp;<em>Chlamydomonas</em>&nbsp;genetic stock center exists at&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>, and an international&nbsp;<em>Chlamydomonas</em>&nbsp;research interest group meets on a regular basis to discuss research results.&nbsp;<em>Chlamydomonas</em>&nbsp;is easy to grow on an inexpensive&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">defined medium</a>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyostelium_discoideum" title="Dictyostelium discoideum">Dictyostelium discoideum</a></em>&nbsp;is used in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>&nbsp;(its&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>&nbsp;has been sequenced), and is studied as an example of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_communication" title="Cell communication">cell communication</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">programmed cell death</a>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahymena_thermophila" title="Tetrahymena thermophila">Tetrahymena thermophila</a></em>&nbsp;- a free living freshwater&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan" title="Protozoan">protozoan</a>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></em>&nbsp;- a unicellular marine&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a>&nbsp;alga, extensively studied as a model&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>&nbsp;species.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></em>&nbsp;- a unicellular marine&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatom</a>&nbsp;alga, extensively studied as a model marine diatom since its genome was published in 2004</li></ul> <h3>Fungi[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Fungi">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashbya_gossypii" title="Ashbya gossypii">Ashbya gossypii</a></em>, cotton pathogen, subject of genetics studies (polarity, cell cycle)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus_nidulans" title="Aspergillus nidulans">Aspergillus nidulans</a></em>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a>&nbsp;subject of genetics studies</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinus_cinereus" title="Coprinus cinereus">Coprinus cinereus</a></em>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a>&nbsp;(genetic studies of mushroom development, genetic studies of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>)^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-pmid10839819-3">[3]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></em>, opportunistic human pathogen</li></ul> <ul> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></em>&nbsp;- orange bread&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a>&nbsp;(genetic studies of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, metabolic regulation, and&nbsp;<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a></em>)^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-4">[4]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></em>, baker&#39;s&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>&nbsp;or budding yeast (used in brewing and baking)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophyllum_commune" title="Schizophyllum commune">Schizophyllum commune</a></em>&nbsp;- model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a>&nbsp;formation.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-5">[5]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></em>, fission yeast, (cell cycle, cell polarity, RNAi, centromere structure and function, transcription)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustilago_maydis" title="Ustilago maydis">Ustilago maydis</a></em>, dimorphic yeast and plant pathogen of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>&nbsp;(dimorphism, plant pathogen, transcription)</li></ul> <h3>Plants[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</astrong>]</h3p>

<pstyle="text-align: center;"><strong><emspan style="color:#0000FF"><a hrefspan style="httpsfont-size://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana26px" title><span style="Arabidopsis thalianabackground-color:#FFFF00">Arabidopsis thalianaEukaryotes</span></span></aspan></emstrong></p>

<ul> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></em>, currently the most popular model plant. This herbaceous&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicot" title="Dicot">dicot</a>&nbsp;of the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a>&nbsp;family is closely related to the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard plant</a>. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies,^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a>}&nbsp;and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a>}&nbsp;Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequenced</a>.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a>}&nbsp;Its genome sequence, along with a wide range of information concerning&nbsp;<em>Arabidopsis</em>, is maintained by the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arabidopsis_Information_Resource" title="The Arabidopsis Information Resource">TAIR</a>&nbsp;database.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-TAIR-6">[6]</a>}<br /> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li> <li>The genus&nbsp;<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boechera" title="Boechera">Boechera</a></em>&nbsp;combines some of the experimental tractability and genetic tools developed for its close relative&nbsp;<em>Arabidopsis</em>&nbsp;with a largely undisturbed natural history, making it a promising model system for research at the intersection of genetics, genomics, ecology, and evolution. The genus includes species with the rare trait of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a>&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploid" title="Diploid">diploid</a>&nbsp;level.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-7">[7]</a>}<br /> <em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_genetics" title="Evolutionary genetics">Evolutionary genetics</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selaginella_moellendorffii" title="Selaginella moellendorffii">Selaginella moellendorffii</a></em>&nbsp;is a remnant of an ancient lineage of vascular plants that is key to understanding the evolution of land plants. It has a small genome size (~110Mb) and its sequence was released by the Joint Genome Institute in early 2008.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachypodium_distachyon" title="Brachypodium distachyon">Brachypodium distachyon</a></em>&nbsp;is an emerging experimental model grass that has many attributes that make it an excellent model for temperate cereals.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setaria_viridis" title="Setaria viridis">Setaria viridis</a></em>&nbsp;is an emerging model grass for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_photosynthesis" titlep style="C4 photosynthesis">C4 photosynthesis</a>&nbsp;and related bioenergy grasses.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-8">[8]</a>}^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-JiangBarbier2013text-9">[9]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_(genus)" title="Lotus (genus)">Lotus japonicus</a></em>&nbsp;a model&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legume</a>&nbsp;used to study the symbiosis responsible for&nbsp;<a href="httpsalign://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>.&nbspcenter;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li></ulp>

<p>&nbsp;<strong><span style="color:#FF0000"><span style="font-size:26px">Protists</span></span></strong></p>

<p><emstrong><a href="https:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii /Dictyostelium discoideum /en.wikipedia.orgTetrahymena thermophila &nbsp;/wikiEmiliania huxleyi &nbsp;/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a>Thalassiosira pseudonana&nbsp;</emstrong></p>

<ulp> <listrong><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna gibba</a></em>&nbsp;is a rapidly growing aquatic&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocot" title="Monocot">monocot</a>, one of the smallest flowering plants. Lemna growth assays are used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals to plants in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">ecotoxicology</a>. Because it can be grown in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_culture" title="Pure culture">pure culture</a>, microbial action can be excluded. Lemna is being used as a recombinant&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression system</a>&nbsp;for economical production of complex&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">biopharmaceuticals</a>. It is also used in education to demonstrate&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">population growth curves</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a>&nbsp;(<em>Zea mays</em>&nbsp;L.) is a cereal grain. It is a diploid monocot with 10 large chromosome pairs, easily studied with the microscope. Its genetic features, including many known and mapped phenotypic mutants and a large number of progeny per cross (typically 100-200) facilitated the discovery of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon" title="Transposon">transposons</a>&nbsp;(&quot;jumping genes&quot;). Many DNA markers have been mapped and the genome has been sequenced.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></em>&nbsp;is a model legume, closely related to the common&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>. Its rather small genome is currently being sequenced. It is used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimulus_guttatus" title="Mimulus guttatus">Mimulus guttatus</a></em>&nbsp;is a model organism used in evolutionary and functional genomes studies. The genus&nbsp;<em>Mimulus</em>&nbsp;contains c. 120 species and is in the family&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrymaceae" title="Phrymaceae">Phrymaceae</a>. Several genetic resources have been designed for the study of this genus and some are free access (<a href="http://www.mimulusevolution.org/" rel="nofollow">http://www.mimulusevolution.org</a>)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_benthamiana" title="Nicotiana benthamiana">Nicotiana benthamiana</a></em>&nbsp;is often considered a model organism for plant-pathogen studies.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-10FF0000">[10]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotiana_tabacum_cv._BY-2" titlespan style="Nicotiana tabacum cv. BYfont-2">Tobacco BY-2 cells</a></em>&nbsp;is a suspension&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">cell line</a>&nbsp;from&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>&nbsp;(<em>Nicotiana tabacum</em>) that is useful for general plant physiology studies at the&nbsp;<a href="httpssize://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>&nbsp;level. The genome of this particular&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">cultivar</a>&nbsp;will not be sequenced in the near future, but sequencing of its wild&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>&nbsp;<em>Nicotiana tabacum</em>&nbsp;is presently in progress.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cytology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a>)</em></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a>&nbsp;(<em>Oryza sativa</em>) is used as a model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereal</a>&nbsp;biology. It has one of the smallest genomes of any cereal species, and sequencing of its genome is finished.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-11">[11]</a>}&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology26px">Molecular biologyFungi</aspan>)</emspan></listrong></ulp>

<p><strong>Ashbya gossypii / Aspergillus nidulans / Coprinus cinereus / Cryptococcus neoformans /&nbsp;Neurospora crassa / &nbsp;Saccharomyces cerevisiae / &nbsp;Schizophyllum commune / Schizosaccharomyces pombe / Ustilago maydis&nbsp;</strong></p>

<p><emstrong><a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens#FF0000" title><span style="Physcomitrella patensfont-size:26px">Physcomitrella patensPlants</span></aspan></emstrong></p>

<ulp> <listrong><em><a href="https:Arabidopsis thaliana //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcomitrella_patens" title="Physcomitrella patens">Physcomitrella patens</a></em>The genus&nbsp;is aBoechera &nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss<Selaginella moellendorffii /a>&nbsp;increasingly used for studies on development andBrachypodium distachyon &nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular evolution</a>Setaria viridis &nbsp;of plants.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a>}&nbsp;It is so far the onlyLotus japonicus &nbsp;<a href="https:/Lemna gibba /en.wikipedia.orgMaize /wiki/Non-vascular_plants" title="Non-vascular plants">non-vascular plant</a>(and so the only &quot;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistics#Three_definitions_of_clade" title="Cladistics">primitive</a>&quot; plant) with its genome completely sequenced.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Rensing-12">[12]</a>}&nbsp;Moreover, it is currently the only land plant with efficientMedicago truncatula &nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">gene targeting<Mimulus guttatus /a>Nicotiana benthamiana &nbsp;that enables&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a>.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_noteTobacco BY-13">[13]</a>}&nbsp;The resulting&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knockout_moss" title="Knockout moss">knockout mosses</a>&nbsp;are stored and distributed by the2 cells &nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Moss_Stock_Center" title="International Moss Stock Center">International Moss Stock Center</a>.Rice &nbsp;<em>(<a href="https:/Physcomitrella patens /en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a>)</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchantia_polymorpha" title="Marchantia polymorpha">Marchantia polymorpha</a></em>&nbsp;is a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverwort" title="Liverwort">liverwort</a>&nbsp;that is also emerging as a model for plant biology and development.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus</a></em>&nbsp;is a genus used as a model in forest genetics and woody plant studies. It has a small genome size, grows very rapidly, and is easily transformed. The genome sequence of black cottonwood (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus_trichocarpa" title="Populus trichocarpa">Populus trichocarpa</a></em>) is publicly available.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-14">[14]</a>}</li> <li>See also&nbsp;<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism#Protists" title="Model organism">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</a></em>, above under Protists.</li></ul> <h3>Animals[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Animals">edit</a>]</h3> <h4><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrates" title="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</a>[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Invertebrates">edit</astrong>]</h4p>

<p><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em></p> <ul> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphimedon_queenslandica" title="Amphimedon queenslandica">Amphimedon queenslandica</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">demosponge</a>&nbsp;from the phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>&nbsp;used as a model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-PMID20686567-15FF0000">[15]</a>}</li> <li><emstrong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbacia_punctulata" titlespan style="Arbacia punctulata">Arbacia punctulata</a></em>, the purplefont-spined&nbsp;<a href="httpssize://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin26px">sea urchinAnimals</aspan>, classical subject of embryological studies</li> <li><emstrong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia"span>Aplysia</a></em>, a sea slug, whose ink release response serves as a model in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a>&nbsp;and whose&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_cones" title="Growth cones">growth cones</a>&nbsp;serve as a model of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeletal" title="Cytoskeletal">cytoskeletal</a>&nbsp;rearrangements</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchiostoma_floridae" title="Branchiostoma floridae">Branchiostoma floridae</a></em>, a species commonly known as amphioxus or&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelet" title="Lancelet">lancelet</a>&nbsp;from the subphylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalochordata" title="Cephalochordata">Cephalochordata</a>&nbsp;of the phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordata" title="Chordata">Chordata</a>&nbsp;used as a model for understanding the evolution of nonchordate deuterostomes, invertebrate chordates, and vertebrates^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-16">[16]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a>, usually called&nbsp;<em>C. elegans</em>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-17">[17]</a>}&nbsp;- an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. C.elegans has a fixed number of 1031 cells.&nbsp;<em>C. elegans</em>&nbsp;was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced</li> <li><em>Caledia captiva</em>&nbsp;(Orthoptera) in eastern Australia, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callosobruchus_maculatus" title="Callosobruchus maculatus">Callosobruchus maculatus</a></em>, the bruchid beetle, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorthippus_parallelus" title="Chorthippus parallelus">Chorthippus parallelus</a></em>, the meadow grasshopper, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciona_intestinalis" title="Ciona intestinalis">Ciona intestinalis</a></em>, a sea squirt</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphnia" title="Daphnia">Daphnia spp.</a></em>, small planktonic&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, highly sensitive to pollution, used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic invertebrates.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-18">[18]</a>}</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelopidae" title="Coelopidae">Coelopidae</a>&nbsp;- seaweed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diopsidae" title="Diopsidae">Diopsidae</a>&nbsp;- stalk-eyed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></em>, usually the species&nbsp;<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></em>&nbsp;- a kind of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophilidae" title="Drosophilidae">fruit fly</a>, famous as the subject of genetics experiments by&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>&nbsp;and others. Easily raised in lab, rapid generations, mutations easily induced, many observable mutations. Recently,&nbsp;<em>Drosophila</em>&nbsp;has been used for neuropharmacological research.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-19">[19]</a>}&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a>)</em>.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euprymna_scolopes" title="Euprymna scolopes">Euprymna scolopes</a></em>, the Hawaiian bobtail squid, model for animal-bacterial&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a>&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrio" title="Vibrio">vibrios</a></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleria_mellonella" title="Galleria mellonella">Galleria mellonella</a></em>&nbsp;(the greater wax moth), the larvae of which are an excellent model organism for in vivo toxicology and pathogenicity testing, replacing the use of small mammals in such experiments.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gryllus_bimaculatus" title="Gryllus bimaculatus">Gryllus bimaculatus</a></em>, the field cricket, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidarian" title="Cnidarian">Cnidarian</a>, is the model organism to understand the processes of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogenesis" title="Morphogenesis">morphogenesis</a>, as well as the evolution of bilaterian body plans^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-20">[20]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loligo_pealei" title="Loligo pealei">Loligo pealei</a></em>, a squid, subject of studies of nerve function because of its giant&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>&nbsp;(nearly 1&nbsp;mm diameter, roughly a thousand times larger than typical mammalian axons)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrostomum_lignano" title="Macrostomum lignano">Macrostomum lignano</a></em>, a free-living, marine flatworm, a model organism for the study of stem cells, regeneration, ageing, gene function, and the evolution of sex. Easily raised in the lab, short generation time, indetermined growth, complex behaviour^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-21">[21]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemiopsis_leidyi" title="Mnemiopsis leidyi">Mnemiopsis leidyi</a></em>, from the phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a>&nbsp;(comb jelly) used as a model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-22">[22]</a>}^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-23">[23]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematostella_vectensis" title="Nematostella vectensis">Nematostella vectensis</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemone</a>&nbsp;from the phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>&nbsp;used as a model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-24">[24]</a>}^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-25">[25]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oikopleura_dioica" title="Oikopleura dioica">Oikopleura dioica</a></em>,^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-26">[26]</a>}&nbsp;an&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvacea" title="Larvacea">appendicularian</a>, a free-swimming&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicate (or urochordate)</a>)</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscarella_carmela" title="Oscarella carmela">Oscarella carmela</a></em>&nbsp;a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoscleromorph" title="Homoscleromorph">homoscleromorph</a>&nbsp;sponge (phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porifera" title="Porifera">Porifera</a>) used as a model in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-27">[27]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parhyale_hawaiensis" title="Parhyale hawaiensis">Parhyale hawaiensis</a></em>&nbsp;an amphipod crustacean, used in evolutionary developmental (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evo-devo" title="Evo-devo">evo-devo</a>) studies, with an extensive toolbox for genetic manipulation.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platynereis_dumerilii" title="Platynereis dumerilii">Platynereis dumerilii</a></em>&nbsp;a marine polychaetous annelid, which evolved very slowly and therefore retained many ancestral features.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-28">[28]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locust" title="Locust">Podisma</a></em>&nbsp;spp. in the Alps, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pristionchus_pacificus" title="Pristionchus pacificus">Pristionchus pacificus</a></em>, a roundworm used in evolutionary developmental biology in comparative analyses with&nbsp;<em>C. elegans</em></li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scathophaga_stercoraria" title="Scathophaga stercoraria">Scathophaga stercoraria</a></em>, the yellow dung fly, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidtea_mediterranea" title="Schmidtea mediterranea">Schmidtea mediterranea</a></em>&nbsp;a freshwater planarian; a model for regeneration and development of tissues such as the brain and germline</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomatogastric_nervous_system" title="Stomatogastric nervous system">Stomatogastric ganglion</a>&nbsp;of various&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a>&nbsp;species; a model for&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_pattern_generation" title="Motor pattern generation">motor pattern generation</a>&nbsp;seen in all repetitive motions</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">Strongylocentrotus purpuratus</a></em>, the purple&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a>, widely used in developmental biology</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symsagittifera_roscoffensis" title="Symsagittifera roscoffensis">Symsagittifera roscoffensis</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworm</a>, subject of studies of bilaterian body plan development</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribolium_castaneum" title="Tribolium castaneum">Tribolium castaneum</a></em>, the flour beetle - a small, easily kept&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkling_beetle" title="Darkling beetle">darkling beetle</a>&nbsp;used especially in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioural_ecology" title="Behavioural ecology">behavioural ecology</a>&nbsp;experiments</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoplax_adhaerens" title="Trichoplax adhaerens">Trichoplax adhaerens</a></em>, a very simple free-living animal from the phylum&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a>&nbsp;used as a model in&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">evolutionary developmental biology</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">comparative genomics</a>^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-29">[29]</a>}</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubifex_tubifex" title="Tubifex tubifex">Tubifex tubifex</a></em>, an&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligochaeta" title="Oligochaeta">oligochaeta</a>&nbsp;used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic and terrestrial worms.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-30">[30]</a>}</li></ulp>

<h4p><a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrates#000000" title><span style="Vertebratesfont-size:24px">Vertebrates</astrong>[<a hrefspan style="httpsbackground-color:#FFFFE0">Invertebrates</span></en.wikipedia.org/wstrong></index.php?title=List_of_model_organisms&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Vertebrates"span>edit</aspan>]</h4p>

<p><strong>Caenorhabditis elegans / Amphimedon queenslandica / Arbacia punctulata / Aplysia / Branchiostoma floridae</strong>&nbsp;/&nbsp;<strong>Caledia captiva &nbsp;/ Callosobruchus maculatus /&nbsp;Chorthippus parallelus / Ciona intestinalis / Daphnia spp / Coelopidae / Diopsidae / Drosophila / Euprymna scolopes / Galleria mellonella / Gryllus bimaculatus, / Hydra / Loligo pealei / Macrostomum lignano / Mnemiopsis leidyi / Nematostella vectensis / Oikopleura dioica / Oscarella carmela / Parhyale hawaiensis / Platynereis dumerilii &nbsp;/ Podisma&nbsp;spp / Pristionchus pacificus /Scathophaga stercoraria / Schmidtea mediterranea &nbsp;/ Stomatogastric ganglion / Strongylocentrotus purpuratus / Symsagittifera roscoffensis / Tribolium castaneum / Trichoplax adhaerens / Tubifex tubifex</strong></p>

<p>Laboratory&nbsp;<a hrefspan style="httpscolor://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse#000000"><span style="font-size:24px" title><strong><span style="House mousebackground-color:#FFFFE0">miceVertebrates</span></strong></span></aspan></p>

<ulp> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombina" title="Bombina">Bombina</astrong>Laboratory&nbsp;bombina<mice /em>&nbsp;andBombina&nbsp;<em>bombina / Bombina variegata</em>, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_anole" title="Carolina anole">Carolina anole</a>&nbsp;(<em>Anolis carolinensis</em>), used to study reptile genomics</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat" title="Cat">Cat</a>&nbsp;(<em>Felis sylvestris catus</em>) - used in neurophysiological research.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">Chicken</a>&nbsp;(<em>Gallus gallus domesticus</em>) - used for developmental studies, as it is an&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniote</a>and excellent for micromanipulation (e.g. tissue grafting) and over-expression of gene products.</li> <li>Cotton rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmodon_hispidus" title="Sigmodon hispidus">Sigmodon hispidus</a></em>) - formerly used in polio research.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog" title="Dog">Dog</a>&nbsp;(<em>Canis lupus familiaris</em>) - an important respiratory and cardiovascular model, also contributed to the discovery of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_hamster" title="Golden hamster">Golden hamster</a>&nbsp;(<em>Mesocricetus auratus</em>) - first used to study kala-azar (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>).</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">Guinea pig</a>&nbsp;(<em>Cavia porcellus</em>) - used by&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>&nbsp;and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, hence a byword for &quot;laboratory animal&quot; even though less commonly used today.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_brown_bat" title="Little brown bat">Little brown bat</a>&nbsp;(<em>Myotis lucifugus</em>)- used to prove echolocation exists in bats in 1930s and also used in experiments predicting microbat behavior as it is a reliable species that has typical features of a temperate bat species.</li> <li>Medaka (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oryzias_latipes" title="Oryzias latipes">Oryzias latipes</a></em>, or Japanese ricefish) - an important model in developmental biology, and has the advantage of being much sturdier than the traditional zebrafish.</li> <li>Mouse (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_mouse" title="House mouse">Mus musculus</a></em>) - the classic model vertebrate. Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, voluntary&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel-running" title="Wheel-running">wheel-running</a>&nbsp;behavior.^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-31">[31]</a>}&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">Naked mole-rat</a>, (<em>Heterocephalus glaber</em>), studied for their characteristic pain insensitivity, thermoregulation, cancer resistance, eusociality, and longevity.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothobranchius_furzeri" title="Nothobranchius furzeri">Nothobranchius furzeri</a>&nbsp;is studied because of their extreme short-lifespan in research on aging, disease and evolution.</li> <li>Pigeon (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_pigeon" title="Domestic pigeon">Columba livia domestica</a></em>), studied extensively for cognitive science and animal intelligence</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poecilia_reticulata" title="Poecilia reticulata">Poecilia reticulata</a></em>, the guppy, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict</li> <li>Rat (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattus_norvegicus" title="Rattus norvegicus">Rattus norvegicus</a></em>) - particularly useful as a toxicology model; also particularly useful as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse.&nbsp;<em>(<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a>)</em></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus macaque</a>&nbsp;(or rhesus monkey) (<em>Macaca mulatta</em>) - used for studies on&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_lamprey" title="Sea lamprey">Sea lamprey</a>&nbsp;(<em>Petromyzon marinus</em>) - spinal cord research</li> <li>&nbsp;Takifugu (<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takifugu_rubripes" title="Takifugu rubripes">Takifugu rubripes</a></em>, a&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pufferfish" title="Pufferfish">pufferfish</a>) - has a small genome with little&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_DNA" title="Junk DNA">junk DNA</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-spined_stickleback" title="Three-spined stickleback">Three-spined stickleback</a>&nbsp;(<em>Gasterosteus aculeatus</em>), a fish used to study ethology and behavioral ecology.</li> <li><em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_tropicalis" title="Xenopus tropicalis">Xenopus tropicalis</a></em>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus_laevis" title="Xenopus laevis">Xenopus laevis</a></em>&nbsp;(African clawed frog) - eggs and embryos from these frogs are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-wallingford-32">[32]</a>}^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-Harland-33">[33]</a>}</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_finch" title="Zebra finch">Zebra finch</a>&nbsp;(<em>Taeniopygia guttata</em>) - used in the study of the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_system" title="Song system">song system</a>&nbsp;of&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songbird" title="Songbird">songbirds</a>&nbsp;and the study of non-mammalian&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">auditory systems</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">Zebrafish</a>&nbsp;(<em>Danio rerio</em>, a freshwater fish) - has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal&#39;s internal anatomy. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology,^{<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms#cite_note-34">[34]</a>}&nbsp;specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.</listrong></ulp>