Difference between revisions of "Essay !7 - About Model Organims Code : KSI0007"

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<p><strong>What is Model organism?</strong></p>
+
<p style="text-align:center"><span style="font-size:26px"><strong>What is Model organism?</strong></span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the&nbsp;expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.</strong></p>
+
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11px">A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the&nbsp;expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms.&nbsp;The reason why I am writing about model organism is that I am study about the DNA repair mutant zebrafish. So I&#39;m very curious about the model organisms such as c. elegans , e.coli, or drosophila, xenopus and&nbsp;mouse and so on .</span></strong></p>
  
−
<p>왜 MODEL ORGANISM 에 대해 ESSAY 쓰는지&nbsp;</p>
+
<p>&nbsp;</p>
  
−
<p>장점&nbsp;</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Which characteristics are good for model organism?</strong></span></p>
  
−
<p>단점</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">1. Small, easy and cheap to maintain and manipulate</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>Which characteristics are good for model organism?</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">2. Short lifespan</span></p>
  
−
<p>1. Small, easy and cheap to maintain and manipulate</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">3. Produce large numbers of offspring</span></p>
  
−
<p>2. Short lifespan</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">4. Development is external</span></p>
  
−
<p>3. Produce large numbers of offspring</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">5. Availability of mutants</span></p>
  
−
<p>4. Development is external</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">6. Lots of history/previous experiments and discoveries</span></p>
  
−
<p>5. Availability of mutants</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">7. Genome is sequences</span></p>
  
−
<p>6. Lots of history/previous experiments and discoveries</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">8. Homologues for with&nbsp;human disease genes are high percentage.&nbsp;</span></p>
  
−
<p>7. Genome is sequences</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">9.&nbsp;Fewer ethical concerns</span></p>
  
−
<p>8. Homologues for with&nbsp;human disease genes are high percentage.&nbsp;</p>
+
<p>&nbsp;</p>
  
−
<p>9.&nbsp;Fewer ethical concerns</p>
+
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11px">Why is model organism research useful for studying disease?</span></strong></p>
  
−
<p><strong>1. Viruses</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">The natural course of a disease in a human may take dozens of years. Simple organisms that can develop a disease or some of its symptoms make it possible for researchers to learn about the disease faster&mdash;in a period of months to a few years. That would be nearly impossible, and often unethical, to do in humans.</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>Phage lambda / Phi X 174 / SV40 / T4 Phage / Tobacco mosaic virus / Herpes simplex virus</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">When scientists discover that a particular gene is associated with a disease in humans, one of the first things they typically do is find out what that gene does in a model organism. This often provides important clues for understanding the cause of a disease and for developing potential diagnostic tests and treatments.</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>2. Prokaryotes</strong></p>
+
<p>&nbsp;</p>
  
−
<p><strong>Bacillus subtilis / E.coli / Caulobacter crescentus / Mycoplasma genitalium / Aliivibrio fischeri / Synechocytis / Psedomonas fluorescens &nbsp; &nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<h2><strong><span style="font-size:11px">How has model organism research impacted human health?</span></strong></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>3. Eukaryotes</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Yeast studies sorted out the orderly sequence of events, called the cell cycle, in which a cell duplicates its contents and divides into two. This information has benefited millions of people, since many drugs used to treat cancer act by interfering with the cell cycle.</span><br />
 +
&nbsp;</h2>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 1. Protists</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Experiments performed with yeast have also clarified how genes are turned on or off. This knowledge explains how cells that contain the same genes can be so different from one another, which has advanced understanding of both normal developmental processes and diseases that occur when genes are turned on or off at the wrong time or in the wrong cell.</span><br />
 +
&nbsp;</h2>
  
−
<p><strong>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii / Dictyostelium discoideum / Tetrahymena thermophila &nbsp;/ Emiliania huxleyi &nbsp;/ Thalassiosira pseudonana&nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Studies in fruit flies and tiny worms taught scientists key aspects of how fertilized eggs develop into complex organisms. In the course of these studies, researchers made unanticipated discoveries, such as learning that genetically controlled cell death plays a critical role in cancer and other diseases.</span><br />
 +
&nbsp;</h2>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 2. Fungi</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Research with bacteria, viruses and yeast has revealed how all living things pass on their genes to offspring through copying DNA and fixing mistakes that get made during the copying process.</span></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>Ashbya gossypii / Aspergillus nidulans / Coprinus cinereus / Cryptococcus neoformans /&nbsp;Neurospora crassa / &nbsp;Saccharomyces cerevisiae / &nbsp;Schizophyllum commune / Schizosaccharomyces pombe / Ustilago maydis&nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Laboratory rats have been used for many decades to test drugs. In addition, much of what we know about cancer-causing molecules was learned through basic research with rats.</span></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 3. Plants</strong></p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:11px">Mice can be genetically engineered to serve as models of Lou Gehrig&#39;s disease and many other human illnesses.</span></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>Arabidopsis thaliana / The genus&nbsp;Boechera &nbsp;/ Selaginella moellendorffii / Brachypodium distachyon &nbsp;/ Setaria viridis &nbsp;/ Lotus japonicus &nbsp;/ Lemna gibba / Maize /&nbsp;Medicago truncatula &nbsp;/ Mimulus guttatus / Nicotiana benthamiana &nbsp;/ Tobacco BY-2 cells &nbsp;/ Rice &nbsp;/ Physcomitrella patens / Marchantia polymorpha / Populus&nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Insects such as fruit flies and honeybees are important models for learning how genes and the environment interact to affect behavior.</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 4. Animals</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Studies with fruit flies, bread mold, bacteria and mice have defined the basic rules of circadian clocks, which drive daily biological rhythms, and revealed connections between these clocks and sleep deprivation, obesity, diabetes, depression and other human health conditions.</span><br />
 +
&nbsp;</p>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 4. 1 Invertebrates</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Research in worms has yielded important information about aging. This research is very difficult to do in people and other organisms that have long life spans.</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>Caenorhabditis elegans / Amphimedon queenslandica / Arbacia punctulata / Aplysia / Branchiostoma floridae</strong>&nbsp;/&nbsp;<strong>Caledia captiva &nbsp;/ Callosobruchus maculatus /&nbsp;Chorthippus parallelus / Ciona intestinalis / Daphnia spp / Coelopidae / Diopsidae / Drosophila / Euprymna scolopes / Galleria mellonella / Gryllus bimaculatus, / Hydra / Loligo pealei / Macrostomum lignano / Mnemiopsis leidyi / Nematostella vectensis / Oikopleura dioica / Oscarella carmela / Parhyale hawaiensis / Platynereis dumerilii &nbsp;/ Podisma&nbsp;spp / Pristionchus pacificus /Scathophaga stercoraria / Schmidtea mediterranea &nbsp;/ Stomatogastric ganglion / Strongylocentrotus purpuratus / Symsagittifera roscoffensis / Tribolium castaneum / Trichoplax adhaerens / Tubifex tubifex</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Model organism research has produced many powerful tools used by scientists all over the world. Examples include&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/Pages/factsheet-rnai.aspx">RNA interference</a>, DNA chips and genome-wide scanning methods. These tools are now being used in human health studies.</span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>3 - 4. 2 Vertebrates</strong></p>
+
<h2><strong><span style="font-size:11px">What more can model organism research tell us?</span></strong></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>Laboratory&nbsp;mice / &nbsp;Bombina&nbsp;bombina / Bombina variegata / Carolina anole&nbsp;(Anolis carolinensis) / Cat&nbsp;(Felis sylvestris catus) / Chicken&nbsp;(Gallus gallus domesticus) / Cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) / Dog&nbsp;(Canis lupus familiaris) / Golden hamster&nbsp;(Mesocricetus auratus) / Guinea pig&nbsp;(Cavia porcellus) / Little brown bat&nbsp;(Myotis lucifugus) / Medaka (Oryzias latipes, or Japanese ricefish) / Mouse (Mus musculus) / Naked mole-rat, (Heterocephalus glaber) / Pigeon (Columba livia domestica) / Poecilia reticulata / Rat (Rattus norvegicus) / &nbsp;rhesus monkey / Sea lamprey&nbsp;(Petromyzon marinus) / &nbsp;Takifugu (Takifugu rubripes, a&nbsp;pufferfish) / Three-spined stickleback&nbsp;(Gasterosteus aculeatus) / Xenopus tropicalis &nbsp;/ Xenopus laevis / Zebra finch&nbsp;(Taeniopygia guttata) / Zebrafish&nbsp;(Danio rerio, a freshwater fish)</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Scientists still do not have a good understanding of biological complexity, in which many molecular networks operate in synchrony inside our bodies. Researchers are mapping these networks in bacteria, yeast and other model organisms, and those studies will be instructive for creating working models of how cells, organs and tissues function in people.</span></p>
  
−
<p>Current Models</p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Model organisms can also help reveal changes at the molecular level that are associated with diseases and identify diseases that are related to one another even though they initially may not appear to be. If there is already a drug to treat one of the diseases, scientists can then explore whether it might work for the related ones, as well.</span></p>
  
−
<p>Drosophila &nbsp;// &nbsp;Xenopus // Zebrafish // Mouse // C. elegans // Yeast // E. coli // Arabidopsis</p>
+
<h2><span style="font-size:22px">These are the representative model organisms</span></h2>
  
−
<p><strong>References&nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>1. Viruses</strong></span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>1.&nbsp;</strong><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism" rel="nofollow">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism</a></strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Phage lambda / Phi X 174 / SV40 / T4 Phage / Tobacco mosaic virus / Herpes simplex virus</strong></span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>2.&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms" rel="nofollow">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms</a></strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>2. Prokaryotes</strong></span></p>
  
−
<p><strong>3.&nbsp;</strong></p>
+
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Bacillus subtilis / E.coli / Caulobacter crescentus / Mycoplasma genitalium / Aliivibrio fischeri / Synechocytis / Psedomonas fluorescens &nbsp; &nbsp;</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3. Eukaryotes</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 1. Protists</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii / Dictyostelium discoideum / Tetrahymena thermophila &nbsp;/ Emiliania huxleyi &nbsp;/ Thalassiosira pseudonana&nbsp;</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 2. Fungi</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Ashbya gossypii / Aspergillus nidulans / Coprinus cinereus / Cryptococcus neoformans /&nbsp;Neurospora crassa / &nbsp;Saccharomyces cerevisiae / &nbsp;Schizophyllum commune / Schizosaccharomyces pombe / Ustilago maydis&nbsp;</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 3. Plants</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Arabidopsis thaliana / The genus&nbsp;Boechera &nbsp;/ Selaginella moellendorffii / Brachypodium distachyon &nbsp;/ Setaria viridis &nbsp;/ Lotus japonicus &nbsp;/ Lemna gibba / Maize /&nbsp;Medicago truncatula &nbsp;/ Mimulus guttatus / Nicotiana benthamiana &nbsp;/ Tobacco BY-2 cells &nbsp;/ Rice &nbsp;/ Physcomitrella patens / Marchantia polymorpha / Populus&nbsp;</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 4. Animals</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 4. 1 Invertebrates</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Caenorhabditis elegans / Amphimedon queenslandica / Arbacia punctulata / Aplysia / Branchiostoma floridae</strong>&nbsp;/&nbsp;<strong>Caledia captiva &nbsp;/ Callosobruchus maculatus /&nbsp;Chorthippus parallelus / Ciona intestinalis / Daphnia spp / Coelopidae / Diopsidae / Drosophila / Euprymna scolopes / Galleria mellonella / Gryllus bimaculatus, / Hydra / Loligo pealei / Macrostomum lignano / Mnemiopsis leidyi / Nematostella vectensis / Oikopleura dioica / Oscarella carmela / Parhyale hawaiensis / Platynereis dumerilii &nbsp;/ Podisma&nbsp;spp / Pristionchus pacificus /Scathophaga stercoraria / Schmidtea mediterranea &nbsp;/ Stomatogastric ganglion / Strongylocentrotus purpuratus / Symsagittifera roscoffensis / Tribolium castaneum / Trichoplax adhaerens / Tubifex tubifex</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3 - 4. 2 Vertebrates</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>Laboratory&nbsp;mice / &nbsp;Bombina&nbsp;bombina / Bombina variegata / Carolina anole&nbsp;(Anolis carolinensis) / Cat&nbsp;(Felis sylvestris catus) / Chicken&nbsp;(Gallus gallus domesticus) / Cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) / Dog&nbsp;(Canis lupus familiaris) / Golden hamster&nbsp;(Mesocricetus auratus) / Guinea pig&nbsp;(Cavia porcellus) / Little brown bat&nbsp;(Myotis lucifugus) / Medaka (Oryzias latipes, or Japanese ricefish) / Mouse (Mus musculus) / Naked mole-rat, (Heterocephalus glaber) / Pigeon (Columba livia domestica) / Poecilia reticulata / Rat (Rattus norvegicus) / &nbsp;rhesus monkey / Sea lamprey&nbsp;(Petromyzon marinus) / &nbsp;Takifugu (Takifugu rubripes, a&nbsp;pufferfish) / Three-spined stickleback&nbsp;(Gasterosteus aculeatus) / Xenopus tropicalis &nbsp;/ Xenopus laevis / Zebra finch&nbsp;(Taeniopygia guttata) / Zebrafish&nbsp;(Danio rerio, a freshwater fish)</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><strong><span style="font-size:11px">Current Models</span></strong></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px">Drosophila &nbsp;// &nbsp;Xenopus // Zebrafish // Mouse // C. elegans // Yeast // E. coli // Arabidopsis</span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p>&nbsp;</p>
 +
 
 +
<p>&nbsp;</p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>References&nbsp;</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>1.&nbsp;</strong><strong><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism" rel="nofollow">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism</a></strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>2.&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms" rel="nofollow">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms</a></strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>3.&nbsp;https://www.nigms.nih.gov/Education/Pages/modelorg_factsheet.aspx</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p><span style="font-size:11px"><strong>4.&nbsp;http://wormclassroom.org/teaching-model-organisms</strong></span></p>
 +
 
 +
<p>&nbsp;</p>
  
 
<p>&nbsp;</p>
 
<p>&nbsp;</p>

Latest revision as of 00:44, 28 November 2016

What is Model organism?

A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. The reason why I am writing about model organism is that I am study about the DNA repair mutant zebrafish. So I'm very curious about the model organisms such as c. elegans , e.coli, or drosophila, xenopus and mouse and so on .

 

Which characteristics are good for model organism?

1. Small, easy and cheap to maintain and manipulate

2. Short lifespan

3. Produce large numbers of offspring

4. Development is external

5. Availability of mutants

6. Lots of history/previous experiments and discoveries

7. Genome is sequences

8. Homologues for with human disease genes are high percentage. 

9. Fewer ethical concerns

 

Why is model organism research useful for studying disease?

The natural course of a disease in a human may take dozens of years. Simple organisms that can develop a disease or some of its symptoms make it possible for researchers to learn about the disease faster—in a period of months to a few years. That would be nearly impossible, and often unethical, to do in humans.

When scientists discover that a particular gene is associated with a disease in humans, one of the first things they typically do is find out what that gene does in a model organism. This often provides important clues for understanding the cause of a disease and for developing potential diagnostic tests and treatments.

 

Contents

How has model organism research impacted human health?

Yeast studies sorted out the orderly sequence of events, called the cell cycle, in which a cell duplicates its contents and divides into two. This information has benefited millions of people, since many drugs used to treat cancer act by interfering with the cell cycle.
 

Experiments performed with yeast have also clarified how genes are turned on or off. This knowledge explains how cells that contain the same genes can be so different from one another, which has advanced understanding of both normal developmental processes and diseases that occur when genes are turned on or off at the wrong time or in the wrong cell.
 

Studies in fruit flies and tiny worms taught scientists key aspects of how fertilized eggs develop into complex organisms. In the course of these studies, researchers made unanticipated discoveries, such as learning that genetically controlled cell death plays a critical role in cancer and other diseases.
 

Research with bacteria, viruses and yeast has revealed how all living things pass on their genes to offspring through copying DNA and fixing mistakes that get made during the copying process.

Laboratory rats have been used for many decades to test drugs. In addition, much of what we know about cancer-causing molecules was learned through basic research with rats.

Mice can be genetically engineered to serve as models of Lou Gehrig's disease and many other human illnesses.

Insects such as fruit flies and honeybees are important models for learning how genes and the environment interact to affect behavior.

Studies with fruit flies, bread mold, bacteria and mice have defined the basic rules of circadian clocks, which drive daily biological rhythms, and revealed connections between these clocks and sleep deprivation, obesity, diabetes, depression and other human health conditions.
 

Research in worms has yielded important information about aging. This research is very difficult to do in people and other organisms that have long life spans.

Model organism research has produced many powerful tools used by scientists all over the world. Examples include RNA interference, DNA chips and genome-wide scanning methods. These tools are now being used in human health studies.

What more can model organism research tell us?

Scientists still do not have a good understanding of biological complexity, in which many molecular networks operate in synchrony inside our bodies. Researchers are mapping these networks in bacteria, yeast and other model organisms, and those studies will be instructive for creating working models of how cells, organs and tissues function in people.

Model organisms can also help reveal changes at the molecular level that are associated with diseases and identify diseases that are related to one another even though they initially may not appear to be. If there is already a drug to treat one of the diseases, scientists can then explore whether it might work for the related ones, as well.

These are the representative model organisms

1. Viruses

Phage lambda / Phi X 174 / SV40 / T4 Phage / Tobacco mosaic virus / Herpes simplex virus

2. Prokaryotes

Bacillus subtilis / E.coli / Caulobacter crescentus / Mycoplasma genitalium / Aliivibrio fischeri / Synechocytis / Psedomonas fluorescens    

3. Eukaryotes

3 - 1. Protists

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii / Dictyostelium discoideum / Tetrahymena thermophila  / Emiliania huxleyi  / Thalassiosira pseudonana 

3 - 2. Fungi

Ashbya gossypii / Aspergillus nidulans / Coprinus cinereus / Cryptococcus neoformans / Neurospora crassa /  Saccharomyces cerevisiae /  Schizophyllum commune / Schizosaccharomyces pombe / Ustilago maydis 

3 - 3. Plants

Arabidopsis thaliana / The genus Boechera  / Selaginella moellendorffii / Brachypodium distachyon  / Setaria viridis  / Lotus japonicus  / Lemna gibba / Maize / Medicago truncatula  / Mimulus guttatus / Nicotiana benthamiana  / Tobacco BY-2 cells  / Rice  / Physcomitrella patens / Marchantia polymorpha / Populus 

3 - 4. Animals

3 - 4. 1 Invertebrates

Caenorhabditis elegans / Amphimedon queenslandica / Arbacia punctulata / Aplysia / Branchiostoma floridae / Caledia captiva  / Callosobruchus maculatus / Chorthippus parallelus / Ciona intestinalis / Daphnia spp / Coelopidae / Diopsidae / Drosophila / Euprymna scolopes / Galleria mellonella / Gryllus bimaculatus, / Hydra / Loligo pealei / Macrostomum lignano / Mnemiopsis leidyi / Nematostella vectensis / Oikopleura dioica / Oscarella carmela / Parhyale hawaiensis / Platynereis dumerilii  / Podisma spp / Pristionchus pacificus /Scathophaga stercoraria / Schmidtea mediterranea  / Stomatogastric ganglion / Strongylocentrotus purpuratus / Symsagittifera roscoffensis / Tribolium castaneum / Trichoplax adhaerens / Tubifex tubifex

3 - 4. 2 Vertebrates

Laboratory mice /  Bombina bombina / Bombina variegata / Carolina anole (Anolis carolinensis) / Cat (Felis sylvestris catus) / Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) / Cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) / Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) / Golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) / Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) / Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) / Medaka (Oryzias latipes, or Japanese ricefish) / Mouse (Mus musculus) / Naked mole-rat, (Heterocephalus glaber) / Pigeon (Columba livia domestica) / Poecilia reticulata / Rat (Rattus norvegicus) /  rhesus monkey / Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) /  Takifugu (Takifugu rubripes, a pufferfish) / Three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) / Xenopus tropicalis  / Xenopus laevis / Zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) / Zebrafish (Danio rerio, a freshwater fish)

Current Models

Drosophila  //  Xenopus // Zebrafish // Mouse // C. elegans // Yeast // E. coli // Arabidopsis

 

 

References 

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_organism

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms

3. https://www.nigms.nih.gov/Education/Pages/modelorg_factsheet.aspx

4. http://wormclassroom.org/teaching-model-organisms

 

 

 

 

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