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Full text link : [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_quantitative_trait_loci https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_quantitative_trait_loci]<br/>
Like other biological macromolecules such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide polysaccharides] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid nucleic acids], proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology) cells]. Many proteins are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme enzymes] that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis catalyse] biochemical reactions and are vital to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism metabolism]. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actin actin] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myosin myosin] in muscle and the proteins in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton cytoskeleton], which form a system of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaffolding scaffolding] that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signaling, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody immune responses], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_adhesion cell adhesion], and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle cell cycle]. In animals, proteins are needed in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(nutrition) diet] to provide the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acid essential amino acids] that cannot be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid_synthesis synthesized]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion Digestion] breaks the proteins down for metabolic use.
Proteins may be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_purification purified] from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultracentrifugation ultracentrifugation], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry) precipitation], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophoresis electrophoresis], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography chromatography]; the advent of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering genetic engineering] has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunohistochemistry immunohistochemistry], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site-directed_mutagenesis site-directed mutagenesis], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography X-ray crystallography], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance nuclear magnetic resonance] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry mass spectrometry].<br/> === PPI (Protein-Protein interaction) === '''Protein–protein interactions''' ('''PPIs''') are physical contacts of high specificity established between two or more [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein protein] molecules as a result of biochemical events steered by interactions that include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_forces electrostatic forces], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond hydrogen bonding] and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic_effect hydrophobic effect]. Many are physical contacts with molecular associations between chains that occur in a cell or in a living organism in a specific biomolecular context. Proteins rarely act alone as their functions tend to be regulated. Many molecular processes within a cell are carried out by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_machine molecular machines] that are built from numerous protein components organized by their PPIs. These physiological interactions make up the so-called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactome interactomics] of the organism, while aberrant PPIs are the basis of multiple aggregation-related diseases, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creutzfeldt–Jakob_disease Creutzfeldt–Jakob] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer's_disease Alzheimer's diseases]. PPIs have been studied with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_to_investigate_protein–protein_interactions many methods] and from different perspectives: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry biochemistry], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistry quantum chemistry], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics molecular dynamics], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transduction signal transduction], among others.<sup id="cite_ref-Titeca_2019_1-0">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein–protein_interaction#cite_note-Titeca_2019-1 [1]]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-2">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein–protein_interaction#cite_note-2 [2]]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-3">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein–protein_interaction#cite_note-3 [3]]</sup> All this information enables the creation of large protein interaction networks<sup id="cite_ref-Mashaghi.2C_A._2004_113.E2.80.93121_4-0">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein–protein_interaction#cite_note-Mashaghi,_A._2004_113–121-4 [4]]</sup> – similar to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_network metabolic] or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_networks genetic/epigenetic networks] – that empower the current knowledge on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade biochemical cascades] and molecular etiology of disease, as well as the discovery of putative protein targets of therapeutic interest.<br/> <br/> full text link : [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein–protein_interaction https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction] === String === '''in computer sciece''' In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming computer programming], a '''string''' is traditionally a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence sequence] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(computing) characters], either as a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_(computer_programming) literal constant] or as some kind of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(computer_science) variable]. The latter may allow its elements to be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immutable_object mutated] and the length changed, or it may be fixed (after creation). A string is generally considered as a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_type data type] and is often implemented as an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_data_structure array data structure] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte bytes] (or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture) words]) that stores a sequence of elements, typically characters, using some [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding character encoding]. ''String'' may also denote more general [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_data_type arrays] or other sequence (or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_(abstract_data_type) list]) data types and structures. Depending on the programming language and precise data type used, a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(programming) variable] declared to be a string may either cause storage in memory to be statically allocated for a predetermined maximum length or employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_allocation dynamic allocation] to allow it to hold a variable number of elements. When a string appears literally in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code source code], it is known as a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_literal string literal] or an anonymous string.<sup id="cite_ref-1">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)#cite_note-1 [1]]</sup> In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language formal languages], which are used in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic mathematical logic] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science theoretical computer science], a string is a finite sequence of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol_(formal) symbols] that are chosen from a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics) set] called an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_(computer_science) alphabet].<br/> <br/> full text link : [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)]<br/> <br/> '''in structure'''<br/> '''String''' is a long flexible [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure structure] made from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber fibers] twisted together into a single strand, or from multiple such strands which are in turn twisted together. String is used to tie, bind, or hang other objects. It is also used as a material to make things, such as textiles, and in arts and crafts. String is a simple [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool tool], and its use by humans is known to have been developed tens of thousands of years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_and_Webster_1-0">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(structure)#cite_note-Evans_and_Webster-1 [1]]</sup> In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerica Mesoamerica], for example, string was invented some 20,000 to 30,000 years ago, and was made by twisting plant fibers together.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_and_Webster_1-1">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(structure)#cite_note-Evans_and_Webster-1 [1]]</sup> String may also be a component in other tools, and in devices as diverse as weapons, musical instruments, and toys.<br/> <br/> full text link : [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(structure) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(structure)]
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